Diploma in Elementary Education (D. El. Ed.) [According to the Latest Syllabus with effect from 2015-17 Batch onwards]
SECOND YEAR Paper – 6 (A)
PEDAGOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION (CLASSES - VI TO VIII)
State Council of Education Research and Training Andhra Pradesh State Amaravathi
Textbook Development Committee K. Sandhya Rani, IPoS Commissioner School Education, Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
Prof. M.V. Rajya Lakshmi Director SCERT, Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
Dr. Sk. Jeelani Basha Professor, Dept. of Teacher Education SCERT, Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
Dr. K. Pandu Ranga Swamy Professor, Dept. of Teacher Education SCERT, Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
Coordination Dr. S.D.V. Ramana Lecturer, Dept. of Curriculum and Textbooks SCERT, Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
Dr. Rama Krishna Rao Ayyagari DIET, Bommuru, East Godavari
A Publication of Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
Authors Dr. Rama Krishna Rao Ayyagari DIET, Bommuru, East Godavari
Sri GGS. Nageswara Rao Lecturer, DIET, V.G. Puram, Vizianagaram
Sri CMV. Chandra Kumar Staff Tutor, ELTC, DIET, Pallipadu, SPSR Nellore
Dr. Rama Krishna Rao Ayyagari DIET, Bommuru, East Godavari
Editors Dr. K. Pandu Ranga Swamy Professor, Dept. of Teacher Education SCERT, Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
Dr. Rama Krishna Rao Ayyagari DIET, Bommuru, East Godavari
CONTENTS UNIT-1: 1.1. 1.2. 1.3.
1.4.
1.5. 1.6. 1.7.
1.8. 1.9. 1.10. 1.11. 1.12. 1.13. 1.14. 1.15. 1.16. 1.17. 1.18.
Introduction. Objectives. Aims and objectives of English Language teaching. 1.3.1 Objectives of teaching English at Primary level 1.3.2 Objectives of teaching English at Upper Primary level State policies on language education. 1.4.1 The Language Education Policy in India 1.4.2 Language policy in Andhra Pradesh 1.4.3 National Position Paper on teaching English Current English language teaching-learning process and their analysis. Beliefs and assumptions in English language teaching. Multilingualism as a resource in teaching of English. 1.7.1 The role of Mother Tongue in English Language Teaching 1.7.2 Using Mother Tongue in the Second Language Class Organizing English language classroom. Role of the teacher and teacher preparation. Professional development of the teacher. Teacher as a facilitator. Errors in language learning The role of teacher in addressing the errors Paradigm shift in English language teaching Sum up Assignment Practicum References
UNIT- 2: 2.1 2.2 2.3
2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
DEVELOPING ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS-1
Introduction Objectives Listening 2.3.1 Sub skills of listening. 2.3.2 Listening tasks Speaking The importance of Listening and Speaking Fluency and Accuracy in speaking. Interaction and its role in developing Listening and speaking. Authentic material for listening. Developing oral discourses. 2.9.1 Description 2.9.2 Dialogues 2.9.3 Story/Narrative
2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16
2.9.4 Poem/song 2.9.5 Short Play 2.9.6 Choreography 2.9.7 Debate and discussion 2.9.8 Interview 2.9.9 Speech Indicators for assessing the oral discourses. Teaching vocabulary. Teaching grammar Sum up Assignment Practicum References
UNIT- 3 3.1 3.2
3.3
3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13
DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS – I
Introduction Unit objectives 3.2.1 Reading expository Texts 3.2.2 Strategies for reading expository Texts 3.2.3 Activating Schema 3.2.4 Building Schema 3.2.5 Reading to learn 3.2.6 Acquisition of Registers Reading Activity Process 3.3.1 Ways of reading 3.3.2 Pre-reading 3.3.3 Individual reading 3.3.4 Collaborative reading 3.3.5. Post-Reading Beyond the text-book Diverse forms of texts as materials for language Relationship of language and society Identity, power and discrimination Nature of multilingualism Hierarchical status of Indian languages and its impact on classroom dynamics Helping children to become good readers What is writing? Relationship between reading and writing Developing written discourses 3.13.1 Description 3.13.2 Narrative/story 3.13.3 Interview 3.13.4 Essay 3.13.5 Biography 3.13.6 Drama/skit
3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22
3.13.7 Notice 3.13.8 Poster 3.13.9 Writing as a tool of consolidating knowledge Responding to narrative texts Individual writing and collaborative writing Editing of children’s writings based on the indicators Teacher is a facilitator Assessment of writing Conclusion Assignments Project works References
UNIT -4: LITERATURE 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19
Introduction Objectives What is literature? The importance of studying literature Role of language in life. Difference between language and literature Types of literary texts Readers’ response theory Responding to literature Schema Engaging with texts Various literary genres (poem, story, biography etc.) Analysis and interpretation of various literary texts. Using literature across the curriculum Identification of literary features in a given text from different genres. Conclusion Assignments Project works References
UNIT-5:
5.1 5.2 5.3
5.4 5.5. 5.6
UNDERSTANDING OF TEXTBOOKS, PEDAGOGY AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Introduction. Objectives Philosophy and guiding principles for the development of English language textbooks. 5.3.1 Features of English Textbooks 5.3.2 The new paradigm shift in the development of textbooks Content, approaches and methods of teaching English language Interactive and participatory methods Teacher as facilitator.
5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13
Themes, structure of the unit Nature of exercises and its implications Analysis of the textbooks. Academic standards and indicators of learning. Learning resources for effective transaction of language curriculum. Role of ICT in teaching English. Action Research in ELT 5.13.1 Features of Action Research 5.13.2 Steps in Action Research. 5.13.3 Evaluation of Action Research Project 5.14 Importance and avenues for continuing professional development. 5.15. Sum Up 5.16 Assignment 5.17 Project Work 5.18 References UNIT – 6: 6.1 6.2 6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11
CLASSROOM PLANNING AND EVALUATION
Introduction Objectives Teaching readiness 6.3.1 Planning of teaching a language 6.3.2 Year plan 6.3.3 Unit plan 6.3.4 Period plan Evaluation procedures 6.4.1 Assessment and Evaluation 6.4.2 Need and importance Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation 6.5. 1 Assessment for, as and of learning 6.5.2 Formative assessment and tools 6.5.3 Summative assessment Feed-back and reporting procedures Recording the children’s performance in CCE Register. Conclusion Assignment Project works References
APPENDICES REFERENCES
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UNIT – 1 (ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASS ROOM)
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ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASS ROOM The English language is nobody’s special property. It is the property of the imagination. It is the property of the language itself. – Derek Walcott.
1.1
INTRODUCTION
A language is a medium of communication and interacting verbally in our day-to-day life situation in family and society. But in India, English language is not like that. It is different from mother tongue. In most of the schools in India, English is taught / studied as a second language. Somewhere English is considered as a foreign language. English held the top most position in India during British rule. Even after independence its importance still continues to be more or less the same. It is the medium of instruction in most of the universities in India. English is considered as the Lingua-Franca or vehicular language. Due to globalization, one has to know English language for international trade. In India its teaching learning in schools is inspired by one aim, that is, the utilitarian aim. This aim can be achieved by acquiring practical command over English. A teacher should be a good planner and he should use innovative techniques and methods for teaching. Thompson and Wyatt rightly remarked that it is necessary that the Indian students should not only understand English when it is spoken or written, but also s/he should her/himself be able to speak and write it. English has a predominant role in the communicative sphere of the world. It is taught all over the world. English enjoys most prestigious reputation in the world. It has a special identity in the field of education. We know it very well that teaching of any subject is a social and cultural activity. It is not so easy to teach any subject as it appears. While teaching, a teacher has to keep in mind the aims and objectives of the subject. In other words, we can say that teaching of any subject becomes much effective when the teacher is fully conscious of the aims and objectives of teaching of that subject. A good teacher thinks that his/her teaching should be effective. All of us know it very well that the basic principle of teaching is “know what we do and only do what we know”. Teaching requires certain directions. After all, success of teaching depends on the aims and objectives of teaching. In ‘Teaching of English’ P.Gurrey writes, “It is highly desirable to know exactly what one is hoping to achieve. If this can be clearly seen, then the best way of getting to work usually becomes evident. We ought, therefore, to consider carefully what we are trying to do when we are teaching English”.
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Some Indian people think that the students in our country should have only passive knowledge of English. Without proper aims and objectives we cannot make our efforts fruitful in English language teaching. Otherwise, it will be of no use. Proper aims and objectives help to evaluate student’s performance. All the four-fold objectives are as important as one. A.V.P. Elliott has rightly said, “the ability to speak and write English and the ability to read English should be regarded as of equal importance”. Champion's notion is that “all objectives should be regarded as of equal importance and should be gift to each”. Objectives help us how a student should spell words correctly. Correct and proper objectives would not be taught by any teacher without knowing aims and objectives of teaching English. Hence aims and objectives play an important role in teaching English language. Indian people consider English as a second language and it is studied compulsorily. It is not the medium of instruction for a majority of the students. It is an instrument and is considered as means for acquiring knowledge. 1.2
OBJECTIVES To bring awareness among the student teachers regarding what the child acquires in English language at the end of primary level. To make them sensitise on the aims and objectives of teaching English at elementary level. To throw some light on the State initiatives on improving the language education at Upper Primary level. To overview the current English language teaching and learning practices and critically analyse them for refinement. To highlight the beliefs and assumptions regarding English language teaching and learning in India. To bring awareness regarding multilingualism as a resource in teaching English. To train the student teacher on how to organise the English classroom effectively. To make the student teacher know the need and importance of preparation to handle the English classes. To help the student teacher grow professionally as a teacher of English. To sensitise the student teacher on the changing role of a teacher as a facilitator. To sensitise the student teachers on the errors made by children in English classroom. To equip the student teacher with the capacity of addressing the errors made by children in English. To sensitise the student teachers on the new paradigm shift occurred in teaching English language.
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1.3
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING Here is an excerpt from NCF 2000, and 2005:
Language education must aim at encouraging independent thinking, free and effective expression of opinions and logical interpretation of the present and the past events. It must motivate learners to say things their way, nurture their natural creativity and imagination and thus make them realize their identity. There are reasons why learning of language ought to find a central place in the total educational process. Oral aspect of the language has to be duly emphasized in language education and oral examination in language must be made an integral part of the evaluation process. Emphasis has to shift from the teaching of textbooks to extensive general reading and creative writing. This would need continuous guidance and monitoring. Due stress is to be laid in all language education programme on the ability to use the language in speech and in writing for academic purpose at work place and in community in general. The term ‘Language’ referred to in the above excerpt is to be interpreted as mother tongue. Nevertheless what has been said above holds good equally for the second language. The Nation has accepted the “three language formula” in order to meet the challenge posed by the multilingual situation prevailing in the country. Language is a powerful tool for the empowerment of the individual. This tool becomes still more powerful and effective in the hands of a person who has mastery of an international language like English other than his mother tongue. At the elementary and secondary levels, the learners should be able to use discourses as tools for creatively intervening in various social phenomena. This alone will help them realize their identity as a second language user. Thus, it is expected that the children in the elementary stage (Classes- Ito VIII) of school are supposed to . . . Acquire the skills of listening, speaking, reading, writing and thinking in an integrated manner. Attain basic proficiency like, developing ability to express one’s thoughts orally and in writing in English in a meaningful way. Interpret and understand instructions and polite forms of expression and respond meaningfully both orally and in writing in English. Develop interpersonal communication skills. Express an awareness of social and environmental issues. Read and interpret critically the texts in different contexts – including verbal (including Braille) and pictorial mode. Acquire varied range of vocabulary; Understand the increased complexity of sentence structures both in reading and writing. Develop reference skills both in both printed and electronic mode.
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1.3.2
THE OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING ENGLISH AT PRIMARY LEVEL
Primary schools in Andhra Pradesh comprise of classes from I to V in which English has been introduced as a compulsory subject from class-I onwards. While teaching English in the primary classes, the following objectives are to be kept in mind for developing the basic proficiency in English. To acquire the Competence to listen o, understand, and respond The learner should be able to use a variety of strategies like listening for gist, listening for specific information, listening for pleasure, etc. and make use of not only verbal, but also non verbal/graphical /contextual cues to understand the message; to know the speaker's point of view; to follow the line of argument, etc., so that they can respond appropriately orally or in writing as the need may be. Competence to respond orally to what is viewed, read or listened to The learner should be able to order and present facts, ideas and opinions effortlessly using language appropriate to the context/person/topic of discourse while giving a lecture/ talk, or while participating in a debate/conversation responding to what is viewed, read or listened to. Competence to read, understand, and respond orally, or in writing The learner should be able to construct meaning by reading critically posing questions while reading, drawing inferences, and relating the text with their previous knowledge / experiences. They should be able to select suitable reading strategy and adjust their reading speed and comprehension level to what they read bearing in mind the purpose of their reading. They should be able to read different genre of language texts as per their level, such as; story/narrative, description, rhymes/poems, letter, diary, notice/message, poster, play, biography etc. Competence to respond in writing to what is viewed, read or listened to The learner should be able to respond in writing to what is viewed, read, or listened to by organizing their thoughts coherently using a variety of cohesive devices such as linkers and lexical repetitions with a sense of audience and purpose. They should use different indicators as per the discourses they write. Competence to understand and use various words and idiomatic expressions The learner should be able to understand and use various words and idiomatic expressions as they listen to, read, speak, or write while performing various tasks involving English language. Language is never used in a uniform fashion. It has innumerable varieties, shades and colours which surface in different domains and in different situations. These variations, known as registers, should form a part of a student's repertoire. Besides the register of school subjects, a student must be able to understand and use the variety of language being used in other domains such as music, sports, films, gardening, construction work, cookery, etc. (Syllabus for Language Teaching, NCF-2005)
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Competence to use language creatively Children's minds are imbued with creativity and imagination, so they should be given ample space to develop them. If the classroom atmosphere is encouraging and if suitable tasks that challenge the young brains are given, they will be able to produce oral or written discourses creatively. It can be a picture, a flow chart, a report, a script for a drama, a poem, a biography etc. Aesthetic sensibility and social responsibility The learner should be able to appreciate the beauty of a literary piece by developing an awareness of literary devices like figurative language, imagery, allegory, and symbolism. They should be able to make informed aesthetic judgments and demonstrate an understanding of artistic expression through analysis. Language classrooms and textbooks have a lot of scope to make students sensitive towards surroundings, people and nation, and to familiarize them with our rich culture, heritage and aspects of our contemporary life. The learner should be able to develop sensitivity to the issues presented in the text such as conservation of resources, population concerns, human rights violation, deforestation and sustainable development. They should be able to free their mind from prejudices against other cultures and other religions and unlearn certain misconceptions about people, culture and social issues. Competence in meta linguistic awareness Meta linguistic awareness is the ability to view and analyze a language as a ‘thing’, as a ‘process’, and as a ‘system’. The learner should be able to reflect on the use of language by demonstrating an understanding that statements may have a literal meaning and an implied meaning. They should be able to demonstrate an understanding the subtleties of an utterance’s social and cultural context by recognizing irony and sarcasm. They should be able to manipulate sentences by transforming them from one form to another. Thus, the following are some of the general objectives of teaching English: 1) To enable to listen to English with proper understanding 2) To enable to speak English correctly. It means that producing sounds with the proper stress and intonation. 3) To enable the students to read English, comprehend and interpret the text. 4) To enable the students to write simple English correctly and meaningfully, viz., simple descriptions, conversations/dialogues/ rhymes and accounts of day to day events. 5) To enable to acquire knowledge of the elements of English. 6) To enable to develop interest in English 7) To increase student’s ability to use planning, drafting and editing to improve their work. 8) To enable students to express themselves creatively and imaginatively in simple English. 9) To enable students to speak clearly and audibly. 10) To enable students to become enthusiastic and reflective readers through contact with challenging and level-specific knowledge.
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1.3.2
OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING ENGLISH AT UPPER PRIMARY LEVEL
The upper primary level consists of classes- 6 to 8 in the State of Andhra Pradesh. By this time, the learners will have become familiar with basics of English language in terms of some vocabulary and functional grammar. At least they would be in a position to recognize the elements of English language. Hence, the following objectives are targeted at upper primary level with regard to teaching / learning of English. 1) To make school students enjoy and appreciate learning English in the classrooms. 2) The students will be able to get the competence to listen to and understand conversations, simple passages, stories, etc., and respond suitably. 3) The students will be able to get the competence to read and understand a variety of reading texts like stories, passages, interpret tables and graphs, pictures, advertisem*nts, posters, massages, etc., and respond orally and in written form. 4) To help the learners to independent users of language and evaluate their own progress and learn through collaborative learning. 5) To develop the competence to use language and vocabulary appropriately in different discourses in the social context. 6) To help the learners attain competence in the grammar knowledge (awareness of grammar) of their level. 7) To help them attain the competence of writing simple messages, invitations, paragraphs, essays, simple formal and informal letters, descriptions and narrations of simple events, skits, compeering, etc. 8) To help them acquire competence to articulate individual/personal responses effectively in oral and written discourses. 9) Attain the competence to convert text into theatrical activities and keep up linguistic competence. 10) Help the learners acquire the competence to use language creatively and use different genres spontaneously for their expression. 11) To acquire the competence to edit the given passages/write ups in terms of discourse features, grammar and conventions of writing. 12) To help the learners to undertake small linguistic projects for attaining the language proficiency, 1.4
STATE POLICIES ON LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Language education plays a crucial role in the entire gamut of education. Language is basically meant for communication of feelings, thoughts, ideas, emotions, etc. All fields of education, be it science or mathematics, social studies or cultural studies, arts or Yoga/physical education; they all require language education. With the advancement of science and technology and shrinking of the world into a small (Global) village, English language gained momentum in terms of technical and cultural exchange, sharing of ideas, mutual cooperation and business among people across the globe. This necessitated focusing more on English language education. Hence, the States have designed their own policies on English language education to meet the global challenge.
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1.4.1
THE LANGUAGE EDUCATION POLICY IN INDIA
Since independence, the Central and State Governments in India have continued to give careful consideration to education, as a matter of national development and security. It is important to understand the recommendations made by various commissions and committees for education, for understanding the Language Education Policy of India. The National Policy of Education 1968 accepted that the development of Indian languages and literature is a necessary condition for educational and cultural progress and until this is done, people’s creative energies will not be utilized, there will be no improvement in the status of education and the gap between the academic and common people will not be bridged. The use of regional languages as the medium of education in primary and secondary classes has been encouraged for many years now. It has also been said that State Governments should enforce the three-language formula for the secondary classes. Thus, children should learn three languages at the secondary level. While talking about the development of languages, the National Policy of Education, 1986 has accepted that the National Policy of Education, 1968 should be implemented meaningfully and with speed. In this context, the Ramamurthy committee, 1990 reviewed the National Policy of Education 1986 and significantly commented that an important reason for why rural children are not able to access higher education is the continued dominance of the English language. Thus, it is the need of the times that regional languages may be encouraged as the medium of education at all levels. According to NCF-2005 children have an innate (by birth) potential to acquire language. Most children have internalized various complexities and rules of language even before they enter school and when they start school can understand and speak two or three languages. This curricular framework has asked for the effective implementation of the three language formula. There is also an emphasis on gaining acceptability for using children’s mother tongues including tribal languages as the medium of education. The multilingual character of Indian society should be looked upon as a resource for developing multilingual proficiency in each child and proficiency in English is a part of this package. This is only possible if the pedagogy of language teaching is based on the use of the mother tongue. Bilingualism or multilingualism definitely has cognitive benefits. The three-language formula is an attempt to deal with our linguistic challenges and opportunities. It is a strategy which lays down the path for learning various languages. 1.4.2
LANGUAGE POLICY OF ANDHRA PRADESH
English in our country is at present the symbol of power and prestige, and the language of the legal system, higher education, pan-regional administrative network, science and technology, trade and commerce. It has come to represent modernization and development, and, as a link language, it has acquired international as well as intra-national roles over the years. In this backdrop we, the people of AP, want our children to get quality education in English language. In order to address the expectations of the people, the Government has introduced English in class 1 onwards is taught as a compulsory subject from classes 1 to 10. The Government has also started parallel English medium sections in the existing schools and new opened English medium schools across the state. At the same time, we believe the objective of acquiring English
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should be to empower the individual to protect the learner’s language and culture, and resist all invasions on these and thereby liberate oneself from colonial clutches. Language plays a significant role in school education as a subject and as a medium. Language is the unique characteristic of human beings. It is the vehicle of thought. Many linguists think of language as only a combination of words and phrases and sentences based on a set of grammatical rules. But, language is much more than that. It is not only a medium for thought but also a resource through which all knowledge is constructed and preserved. All children are born with an innate capacity to acquire languages, except those who are mentally retarded. All normal children can attain basic linguistic proficiency like adults by the age of 4 years, that is, they know the basic vocabulary and the overall grammatical structures of the languages they are exposed to subconsciously. Children acquire extremely complex and rich systems of rules that govern language at the level of sounds, words, sentences and discourse structures. It is quite natural for children to learn more than one language at a time when there is rich exposure and caring and loving environment. Children are also highly innovative in their use of language and acquire linguistic systems on their own ways. 1.4.3
POSITION PAPER - NATIONAL FOCUS GROUP OF TEACHING ENGLISH
In the current Indian context on the one hand there is an increasing demand for English which is associated with progress and development, while on the other the language is also perceived as a killer of native or indigenous languages. The demand for English emerges from many factors, as recognized by the position paper on the teaching of English produced by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) in connection with the National Curriculum Framework 2005. ‘English in India today is a symbol of people’s aspirations for quality in education and fuller participation in national and international life’. English is the language that empowers our people in the present context. The language has so strong a data base on the internet and it is the language widely used on social media to connect people from different nationalities. As the language of trade and commerce, higher education and science English enjoys a status which no other language has acquired. Lexical knowledge is now acknowledged to be central to communicative competence and the acquisition and development of a second language. Even in a first language, “ . . . whereas the grammar of a language is largely in place by the time a child is 10 years old . . . , vocabulary continues to be learned throughout one’s lifetime” (Schmitt 2000: 4). The foundation for vocabulary development and writing at later levels is through reading extensively with comprehension and interest. The debate on “instructed” and “incidental” vocabulary acquisition suggests that the very large vocabulary required of a high-school student for academic purposes is not acquired in an all-or-none, “taught” manner, but built up gradually and incrementally through reading (cf. Krashen 1989; Schmitt 2000). When language is adequately taught in the early years, the learner can naturally build up these higher-order skills independently, with some guidance from the classroom. Research has also shown us that greater gains accrue when language instruction moves away from the traditional approach of learning definitions of words (the dictionary approach) to an enriched approach, which encourages associations with other words and contexts (the encyclopedia approach) (Fawcett and Nicolson 1991; Snow et al. 1991).
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Materials used or available as texts in class libraries may be in print as well as multimedia formats. Children must be exposed to a whole range of genres. As at all levels, but particularly at this level, the materials need to be sensitive to perspectives of equity (gender and societal) and harmony (between humans, and between humans and nature), given that a quantum of independent reading is expected (at least half a dozen pieces in a year). Sensitisation to language as a vehicle of gendering can also be initiated for those groups where teacher and student competencies permit this; this is an ideal area for an across-the-curriculum exploration of language use. Traditionally, language-learning materials beyond the initial stages have been sourced from literature: prose, fiction, and poetry. While there is a trend for inclusion of a wider range of more contemporary and authentic texts (due both to a functional orientation of the language curriculum and a broader definition of what constitutes literature), accessible and culturally appropriate pieces of literature continue to play a pivotal role; most children think of the English class as a place in which to read stories. The use of language to develop the imagination is a major aim of later language study. Provision may in addition be made in the curriculum for the optional study of literatures in English: British, American, and literatures in translation: Indian, Commonwealth, European, and so on. Simultaneously, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) approach can be adopted where necessary and feasible. (Formulaic uses of language, such as in tourists’ phrase books, do not presuppose any systematic or spontaneous knowledge of the language, and are excluded from our purview.) These approaches will serve as precursors of specialisations to follow in the study of language at the undergraduate level. 1.5
CURRENT ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING / LEARNING PROCESSES AND THEIR ANALYSIS
Here are some of the processes that have been followed since many years in English class in India. Teaching the alphabet Showing objects/pictures and teaching words (eg. Pen, a pen ) Beginning with sentences (This is a pen…) Teaching rhymes (e.g. Twinkle, twinkle …) Teaching language formulae (May I come in, Excuse me…) Role-playing a conversation Story telling Asking comprehension questions and eliciting response One or two structures and functions Pronunciation of words Answers to comprehension questions Teaching word meanings Giving explanations Oral drilling of answers Giving extensive practice Model reading by teacher Learners repeating after the teacher
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Loud reading by individual learner Copy writing Exercises related to . . . Comprehension questions A few fill in the gap questions Re-ordering the words in a sentence Rearranging the letters in words How was a rhyme taught? The teacher recites the rhyme two or three times. Children say the rhyme after the teacher. They practice the rhyme first in groups and then individually. Teacher reads out the rhyme from the prescribed textbook. Children read after the teacher. A few of them reproduce the rhyme without the support of the textbook. 1.6
BELIEFS AND ASSUMPTIONS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
The materials and methods used for teaching English reflect a few assumptions about language and language learning: Language is a skill subject. It can be learnt through practicing LSRW Language consists of a bundle of language facts such as words, structures, meaning, grammar, spelling, pronunciation, etc. The language facts are to be taught in a linear order following the principle ‘simple to complex’, that is beginning from letters, then words, sentences and passages. Errors are to be corrected as and when they are made. Otherwise it will be difficult to get rid of them. Language can be learnt by learning vocabulary, structures, usages and pronunciation We should test whether the learners have learnt all these language elements Teachers usually are too eager to correct the errors of children whether they are in speech or in writing. Most of them believe that if errors are not corrected as and when they occur, they are likely to get reinforced causing undesirable language behaviours. This is just a matter of belief. Beliefs, especially those related to language and language learning have been nurtured through generations without having been critically examined. Historically speaking this particular belief is a part of the belief system that was created and propagated by a school of thought popularly known as behaviourism. We have an array of evidence from recent researches on language learning to show that corrections do not accelerate the process of language acquisition. Theoretical assumptions from cognitive psychology, theoretical linguistics, neurobiology, humanistic foundations of education:
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1) The human child is genetically endowed with a language system and what we mean by language acquisition is the unfolding of this innate system. 2) Language acquisition is a non-conscious process, which is to be seen as distinct from conscious process of learning language facts. 3) Language is acquired not through imitation, but through insightful theory construction. 4) Repetition may be helpful for learning language facts in isolation, but recurrence is relevant for acquisition. 5) Language is not the totality of the four skills but the inner competence required for the performance of the four skills. 6) Language acquisition is not a process of linear growth but is that of spiral growth. 7) Acquisition progresses from Whole to Part. At every stage of learning facts of language that constitute parts are conceived in relation to the language system as a whole. 8) Static texts have no role in acquisition. What the child requires is a large variety of dynamic texts in the form of discourses. 9) Acquisition becomes smooth when linguistic experience is real, holistic, relevant, needbased and meaningful to the child. 10) Overt corrections or expansions cannot facilitate acquisition. What is required is a rich linguistic atmosphere that will provide enough evidence for the child to acquire language. 11) It is not the quantum of exposure that matters but its quality. Acquisition will take place only if he learner gets comprehensible input through discourses generated in the classroom. Human beings are born with language faculty and this enables them to acquire any number of languages at any point of time in their lives. It is true, however, that children acquire new languages much faster, in particular their sound systems/exposure to the language. Adults are often better at acquiring words and sentence structure. If children fail to learn new languages such as say Hindi and English in Andhra Pradesh, the problem is not with children; the problem is with materials, methods and teachers and the overall infrastructure provided in the school. A second language is easily learnt if we can ensure rich and challenging exposure and with a caring and sympathetic environment. Rich exposure would include engaging with a wide variety of discourses including poems, stories, plays, jokes, hoardings, songs etc; and this engagement should ensure reflection and analysis. In general, the process of teaching a second language should approximate as closely as possible to a situation in which that language is acquired as a first language. This indeed is a difficult task but approximation is always possible. No methodology can survive long by attributing all the failures to the teachers or the learners. It is high time we examined what exactly is at stake and choose the right kind of pedagogy that would put things in order. It will give due consideration to the innateness of human beings and would address itself to empower the inbuilt language mechanism. The pedagogy that we envisage will necessarily have the following attributes: Emphasizes learning and not teaching. Encourages and accepts learner autonomy and initiative Sees learners as persons with will and purpose Thinks learning as a process Encourages learner inquiry
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Acknowledges the critical role of experience in learning Nurtures learner’s natural curiosity Bases itself on the principles of cognitive theory Consider how children learn Encourages learners to engage in dialogue with other students and the teacher Supports co-operative and collaborative learning Involves learners un real life situations Emphasizes the context in which learning takes place Considers the beliefs and attitudes of the learners Provides learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge from authentic experience Ensures the transaction of English through meticulous spiraling of discourses Ensures the spontaneous construction of a variety of oral and written discourses such as conversation, description, poem, letter, diary, narrative, report, debate and speech without explicit teaching. Incorporates several strategies for the expansion of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) of students. Makes use of a number of activities meant for the development of multiple intelligences. Integrates the various skills of language in a most natural way. Ensures the paradigm shift from the skill-based approach to the knowledge-based approach. Makes use of continuous and comprehensive evaluation scheme. Promotes creative and meaningful use of language rather than mechanical reproduction of language texts, Bridges the gap between the so-called “good” and “bad” performers of language. 1.7
MULTILINGUALISM AS A RESOURCE IN TEACHING ENGLISH
Multilingualism is constitutive of human identity. Even the so called "monolingual" in a remote village possesses a verbal repertoire that equips his/her to function adequately over a large number of communicative encounters. It is natural that our classrooms are multilingual since all societies employ a highly diversified repertoire to negotiate a multiplicity of situations. Therefore, rather than treating classroom multilingualism as an obstacle, we should treat it as a resource and try to use it as a teaching strategy. It can be used to enable the child to sharpen her cognitive skills and also to acquire the target language. So the survival and maintenance of multilingualism should be at the centre of our language planning. We must find ways of respecting and using the multiplicity of voices represented in our classrooms. A child whose voice is not heard will definitely feel alienated and is likely to drop out of the school. Instead of teaching mechanical and boring grammar, we can make use of the multiplicity of languages available in the classroom as a basis for reflecting on language structure. Once again SCF suggests that it is interaction among linguistic groups that’s at the heart of classroom processes of Second Language Learning. The aim of teaching English is the creation of multilingual that can enrich all our languages; this has been an abiding national vision. Language is a complex phenomenon. It is
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not just a means of communication. Language is thought also. Language and thought are inseparable. India is a land of many languages. Even in our state Andhra Pradesh many languages are spoken. While teaching the target language English, the teacher must understand the multilingual scenario and consider it an advantage rather than a handicap. He / She must respect the various languages like Telugu, Urdu, Marathi, and Oriya spoken by the children and provide space for each linguistic community in the English classroom. Instead of teaching English Grammar mechanically and boringly, the English teacher may think of comparing and contrasting the structure of English Language with those of the different languages spoken by the children. Freedom should be given to the learners to use the mother tongue at every stage. They are expected to say a few lines about the pictures in the language they like. When they come across English expressions (words), they can say what they are called in Telugu or any other language they can freely express. There can be intermittent shift from L1 to English and vice versa. Multilingualism promotes scholastic achievement and cognitive growth and social tolerance; multilingualism should be taken as an advantage rather than a handicap in teaching the target language, English. Languages flourish in one another’s company and they die if they are frozen in textbooks, dictionaries and grammar books. Hence the teacher should make use of the strategies of translation, paraphrase, code mixing and code switching very effectively and consider multilingualism a great resource for him / her in the teaching the target language. It is really an interesting and challenging task for the teacher to amalgamate the multiplicity of languages and cultural practices and ethos [that the children bring to class and use it as a great resource to foster social tolerance, linguistic enhancement besides teaching. Multilingualism is the norm of the day. The world today is becoming increasingly multilingual. Multilingualism is the ability of an individual speaker or a community of speakers to use multiple languages. Multilingualism is the act of using, or promoting the use of, multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world’s population. The use of the mother tongue in ESL classes is debatable in the English as a Second language classroom. Advocates of the monolingual approach suggest that the target language should be the only medium of communication, believing that the prohibition of the native language would maximize the effectiveness of learning the target language. They also believe that the use of mother tongue would interfere with the acquisition of second language. However, some teachers believe that the mother tongue is a rich resource for teaching a second language. 1.7.1
THE ROLE OF MOTHER TONGUE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
Throughout the history of English language teaching and second language acquisition in India, the role of mother tongue has been an important issue. Knowing when to use the mother tongue and when to use English in a classroom is one of the hardest decisions to make. In the past the use of mother tongue in English classrooms was considered taboo. But most language
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experts do not accept this today. It is observed that the language skills acquired during the acquisition of the mother tongue have a positive impact on second language acquisition. In teaching English to very young learners, relating to things they already know is very crucial in learning. It is also important that the children have a sense of security in the classroom that they feel they can ask for help, explain problems, say how they feel, and so on. If the use of the mother tongue is banned in the classroom such a sense of security disappears. The mother tongue may be helpful in giving directions to learners when they take up complex activities. It can also be used when introducing a new word, phrase or idiom to the learners if it cannot be transacted with the help of an object/picture or even by using it in a self-explanatory sentence. The monolingual approach has been criticized by many teachers who find that the use of L1 in ESL classes is beneficial at various levels. L1 has long been considered as a lower language and a source of errors. This view is now being criticized because ESL teachers have become aware of the significance of L1. Vivian Cook (2001) writes about the mother tongue in EFL classes as “a door that has been firmly shut in language teaching for over a hundred years.” Use of the mother tongue can help students to understand English more thoroughly and make a connection between their native language and English. It is also beneficial for them to become quicker at ‘code-switching’. Using L1 is not the problem. The problem is when and how to use it. Before answering this question, it should be born in mind that L1 use must be considered “as a means to an end”. The mother tongue is a rich resource for teaching a second language. English should be used where possible and mother tongue when necessary. Code switching is an effective strategy in narrating stories to young learners. Errors are quite natural in second language acquisition. Teachers have to think of effective strategies for addressing learners’ errors. 1.7.2
USING MOTHER TONGUE IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE CLASS
It is clear that a major part of input given to the child is in the form of narratives which have been specially designed to create emotional gestalts in the listeners. How can we present narratives that will be readily understood by children of class I or II? In order to make the input comprehensible we will have to fine-tune the narrative minimizing their linguistic resistance. A possible way out is to use mother tongue for facilitating second language acquisition. ELT schools across the world have started advocating judicious use of mother tongue in L2 classroom. But the term ‘judicious’ is very vague. How will a teacher interpret this term? S/he may take resort to any one of the following strategies for mixing L1 and L2. Translation Code-mixing Code-Switching
We know what translation is not a productive strategy for facilitating language acquisition. What about Code mixing? This means mixing mother tongue and the second language within the sentence. The syntax of mother tongue will be taken as the base and some words in English will be within the sentence frame. (e.g., ‘NENU EEROJU BUSY GAA
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UNNAANU’ (I am very busy today). Most educated persons (and also illiterates) make use of this strategy. This is also is not helpful for language acquisition. The third strategy is that of ‘code switching’ which means switching over from one language (code), say, L1 to the other L2. Code-switching can be used as a pedagogic tool for facilitating second language acquisition. Narratives can be presented for unveiling a plot that can involve children psychologically. To begin with most part of the narrative will be in mother tongue and there will be slots in it that allow the facilitator to switch over to English in a natural and contextualized manner. This strategy does away with the normal practice of using mother tongue for translating the passage, explaining word meanings, and for checking comprehension. From the discussion that has been given above it is clear that we have to focus more on the qualitative aspects of the input that we are giving to the second language learner. It should not be fragmentary but holistic and comprehensible. As a pre-requisite to comprehension, we have to instill in the minds of the learners the need to listen to or read a given text. A major part of comprehension will be taken care of by the communicational expectancy generated in their minds. We will also have to provide a continuum of linguistic experience for the learners by linking various transactional components such as interaction, listening to the narratives, reading the text and constructing discourses. 1.8
ORGANIZING ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
We may have spent months gathering materials, planning lessons, and getting ready to start the new school year, but have we given any thought to how you will set up your English classroom? An effective classroom layout is as important as the books we will use or the materials we will employ to get your point across. Our classroom is the physical space where our students’ learning will take place, and there are ways in which we can maximize this space for more effective lessons. Classroom management and organization are intertwined. While rules and routines influence student behavior, classroom organization affects the physical elements of the classroom, making it a more productive environment for its users. How the classroom environment is organized influences the behavior in it. We envisage the English classroom where the learners can interact with one another, with the materials, with the facilitator and with the society outside the classroom, whenever necessary. The profile of the classroom must be collaborative rather than competitive. Knowledge is conceived not as the monopoly of an individual or an agency but as the collective asset of a society. Hence the classroom should encourage sharing of knowledge among the learners. A teacher is to rise to the level of a researcher who continuously works for tackling academic issues. Collaborative learning among learners can bring about positive changes in education. The teacher should exploit all possibilities of generating language by shifting the role of the learner from a recipient to that of a producer. Classroom organization is evident in a room even if no one is present. Furniture arrangements, location of materials, displays, and fixed elements are all part of organization. Effective teachers decorate the room with student work, they arrange the furniture to promote
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interaction as appropriate, and they have comfortable areas for working (Kohn, 1996). They also consider student needs in arranging the room by leaving space for wheelchairs to maneuver; having walkways so students can access materials, pencil sharpeners, and the trashcan with minimal disturbance to others; and organizing in such a way as to allow the teacher to freely move around the room to monitor student progress. Reading corner A reading corner is a place where a group of perhaps six or seven pupils sit to read and then meet informally, with or without a teacher present, to talk about the story. When Readers’ Club meets, they can use the opportunity to talk about the plot, the characters and the themes. You can discuss and answer questions and give opinions. Apart from the fact that everyone loves a story and a get-together with people who have shared interests, most of the English read in classroom will be individual sentences, short reading texts or exam practice material. These texts are usually chosen by a teacher. In a reading Corner Club, one reads a complete story that has specially chosen for themselves, and they are reading it for pleasure. Of course, it will also help to improve your English. The more one reads, the more words become familiar; the more words become familiar, the faster one reads and the more vocabulary they learn. Make sure you have at least one shelf with several books students may browse. Even if they can’t read some of them, they will spark curiosity and interest in your students. Here, you can keep the books you may choose to read out loud to the class. You may also choose to add a couple of chairs of cushions next to the bookcase so students can make themselves comfortable after they grab a book. Wall Magazine A wall magazine is a periodical run on a notice board, especially in an educational institute where the students and other members of the institution can post their articles, poems, drawings and other such compositions to share with each other. They can be in the form of collage giving a message. Wall magazines are a medium within the educational institutions for the students to express their creativity. Wall magazine is an important means to enable the students to express their inner feelings. It also helps them in developing the positive and desirable qualities. Set up a wall magazine in your English classroom. It may be arranged to a wall. Encourage the students to contribute something in English. First we have to collect and paste in the wall magazine so that children will be inspired by us. Maintain a file to keep the contributions of children. Those are useful to prepare class magazine or school magazine. 1.9
ROLE OF THE TEACHER
In spite of the centrally prepared curriculum, the teacher enjoys full academic freedom to design, conduct, evaluate and provide appropriate measures to achieve the Curricular Objectives. The emerging paradigm demands two levels of competence on the part of teachers: on the one hand, they must have the skills for sensitizing learners on the craft of constructing various discourses. On the other, they must have the pedagogy of helping learners use discourses as tools for creatively intervening in social issues. The following roles are to be performed by a teacher:
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A diagnostician A researcher A democratic leader A co-learner A facilitator A social engineer The teacher’s role has been re-defined focusing on meaningful interaction with the learners to help them think and articulate their ideas. Facilitating collaborative learning Providing inclusive learning environment Treating the child as partner in the learning process not as a mere recipient. Teacher Preparation Planning for teaching is a skill. It reflects professionalism of the teacher. Bring in the required changes in planning as per latest trends in the field of teaching learning process is a must. To prepare teaching community towards this is a crucial task. Our trainings and orientation programmes should be designed in a manner that it should enable the teachers to adopt simple and flexible steps in planning, keeping latest trends in view. Teachers need to understand how to plan lessons so that children are challenged to think and to try out what they are learning, and not simply repeat what is told to them. Planning with the support of appropriate material resources for individualized, small group and whole group work is the key to effective management of instruction in a multi grade, multi ability or vertically grouped classroom. The practices of teachers in classrooms, the materials they use, and the evaluation techniques employed must be internally consistent with each other. Most of the teachers prepare their lesson plans and learning material for the sake of display or for the officers who ever visit the schools for monitoring and supervision. Teachers are to be motivated to develop TLM for the needs of the children during teaching learning process. School complex should act as resource centre for teachers to develop as professionals in true spirit in planning for teaching effectively. Teacher preparation and professional expertise is crucial for planning and organizing learning experiences in classrooms. Even though the capability of teachers to plan and organize teaching-learning process based on the curriculum and the syllabus is varied among teachers, the delivery of curriculum in most cases is still not meaningful. It does not relate to the context of the child and her level. No space is created for her participation and for individual or group tasks and presentations. The present situation indicates that most teachers rely on textual matter and transaction of the same without any value addition like adding of examples, illustrations etc. or referring to resource books /material. There is no evidence of planning and strategizing to help children learn. Teachers do not seem to bring TLM to make children engage in learning. This is a question related not only to the lack of training, but also the lack of favourable attitudes towards these resources amongst the teachers.
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1.10
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEACHER
Professional development takes place in two ways one is a narrow way and the second is a broad one. 1) The narrow view is to acquiring some specific sets of skills and knowledge in order to deal with some specific new requirements like attending teacher training to handle new textbooks or to use new teaching aids. 2) The broad view conceives Continuing Professional Development (CPD) as a much deeper, wider and longer-term process, in which the professionals continuously enhance not only their knowledge and skills, but also their thinking, understanding and maturity. They grow not only as professionals, but also as persons; their development is not restricted to their work roles, but may also extend to new roles and responsibilities. English has become a lingua franca in many professional fields in our highly globalised world, and the education field is no exception. Thus, it is imperative for English language teachers to continue upgrading their English language skills throughout their career and improve their communication skills. They should review the learning resources, including CALL (Computer Aided Language Learning) and digital media, and discuss developing their own course materials for use in their classrooms by using a variety of oral, visual and written sources. Besides, they should also share their experiences both as language learners and language teachers with others. . During the professional career, all the teachers need to upgrade their knowledge of English and its usage and sharpen their proficiency in English. Traditional professional development assumes that teachers can improve their classroom practices as a result of gaining new information and knowledge from taking a workshop or course. The belief is that transmission of knowledge from training will transform their teaching behaviours. But in reality, these workshops/trainings have little effect on classroom teaching. But in reflective teaching, a teacher himself/herself can articulate for current practices. This is the bottom-up approach to teacher professional development. The following are some of the key ideas with regard to professional development of teachers. Professional development for second language teachers is defined as the process of continual intellectual experiential and attitudinal growth of teachers. A reflection includes a process that helps teachers to think about what happened, why it happened and what else could have been done to reach their goals Teachers using technology in their English class room are not only improving their instruction for their students but they are changing the very nature of that instruction. Websites, web applications, slide presentations, podcasts, blog etc can be integrated in the teaching learning process so that the desired goals are achieved faster. English language teachers in almost all countries have established their professional organizations; and they organize and participate in different kinds of seminars,
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workshops, training, and conventions in order to grow academically and professionally. Through Action Research the teachers gain insight, develop reflective practice, foster effective positive changes in the school environment and improve student outcomes. Most of the teachers and supervisors rarely refer to library books, modules, internet, professional magazines etc. Professional growth including promotions is not linked to addition of capability or to performance but only to the number of years spent in service. The system of transfers is also arbitrary and leads to a feeling of alienation from the system. Besides this, the support from School Complexes, MRCs for professional clarity, guidance is also not as per expected levels. A lot more avenues are available for the professional development of language teachers. We can learn a lot from the experienced and expert practitioners in the field of English Language Teaching by attending the workshops and seminars on our own. The teachers are lucky for whom the talks are available in their vicinity. But others can read the articles and books written by ‘experts’ and can participate in online events or blogs with invited professionals as an alternative if the experts are not available somewhere near them. Seminars and Workshops The teachers often can get a lot more out of smaller, more intimate workshops where there is more opportunity to discuss and debate ideas and opinions and take away ideas for class room activities to one’s own reflection. Online communities These include an interactive virtual conference such as the annual IATEFL (International Association for Teachers of English as a foreign language) online conferences sponsored by the British Council or the blogs on the ‘Teaching English’ website or other forums and discussion boards set up to encourage participation around ELT topics by teachers from all over the world. We can get online membership from the British council to post our own blogs or read other’s blogs and share our opinions or add our own comments with a better understanding of what language is and how it is learnt. Informal talks with colleagues in English in the staff room helps a lot to improve the proficiency levels. Staff room is the best place for our informal chitchat. We can join other colleagues discussing their next lesson or the material they are using. This is the most effective and one of the easiest ways of developing professionally, especially if you are really serious about borrowing ideas from your colleagues and trying out them in your own English classes. Reading is the most important for improving the proficiency levels in English, especially for English teacher. The teachers can read internet Journals, materials as well as actual text books as well as other books.
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Reading individually can be formalized in discussion in a reading group. We may read a text and a few weeks later, discuss the contents. We learn so much through sharing of our ideas, impressions and discussing issues the reading material raise. Writing a diary and reflecting on our daily activities in writing is a very good way to improve language skills. We have to write an article and re-write it many times so that it can be refined considerably. We can become members of professional bodies which render invaluable service for our professional development. There are already some of these in the field. Teachers can also work for building up an academic networking among them by blogging, or through other internet programmes such as face book, twitter for sharing their field experiences with other teachers across the world. Forming English clubs to discuss and participate in the language activities will certainly develop proficiency in English In fact the possibilities are many. The only decisive criteria for our actions should be our own critical thinking – looking at everything including our actions from multiple perspectives. Moreover, there are some specialized institutes like English and Foreign Language University (EFLU), Regional Institutes of English and English Language Teaching Centres exclusively meant for offering all sorts of help to the teachers of English in the country. The ELTI Support Scheme (ELTIs/RIEs/SCERTs) and the District Centres for English Scheme spread across the country which are academically and financially (partially) supported by the English and Foreign Languages University offer several 1-month/3-month teacher development programmes and various workshops and orientation programmes on effective teaching of English. British Council of India is rendering great service in disseminating the useful ELT classroom material for the learners as well as for the teachers. These institutes conduct seminars, lectures, training programmes and also offer guidance on spoken English courses regularly for teachers for improving their communication skills and professional development. Moreover, the print and digital media, the internet and the various websites, etc. are of great help for developing the language proficiency and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) for English Language Teachers. A resourceful teacher undertakes the following things to grow professionally. 1)
Displays professional commitment/accountability Displays accountability through full use of the time available, to ensure optimal learning of all children. Communicates /interacts with parents, especially on attendance issues, and other relevant issues such as health, behaviour, and progress.
2) Develops her/himself professionally (individually and as member of a team) Regularly refreshes his/her subject knowledge and pedagogy skills [e.g. through reading, discussion with colleagues, trying out new methods and materials].
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Updates her or his knowledge with the help of reference material. Strives consistently for her/his own professional growth (through improved understanding, skills, relationships, performance in accordance with these standards, and innovation). Takes interest in professional self-development e.g. through participation in training or monthly meetings. 3) Works with colleagues as a team and optimizes resources Develops a rapport with the MRC Discusses content/process issues with colleagues (shares experiences/difficulties/ situations). Shares classroom practices and experiences with other teachers within and across schools. Actively shares best practices, success stories and failures in CRC/MRC meetings as well as at other sharing platforms. Appreciates ‘good practices’ of other teachers and community members and adapts useful elements from such practices for his or her own school’s quality improvement. Collaborates with Resource Persons from DIETs, MRCs, and CRCs by accepting and following up on their valid suggestions in a positive spirit. 4) Undertakes reflective practice Implements and shares innovative practices where applicable. (Reflects, and identifies gaps in learning, and relies on innovation to correct the gaps). Learns on an ongoing basis, along with children and colleagues. 5) Participates in Management and implementation Undertakes/manages ‘non-class’ in-school activities appropriately (e.g. Mid-daymeal). Uses class and school records for planning and management (e.g. in planning for school improvement, and monitoring it). 1.11
THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER AS A FACILITATOR
The major shift in the role of the teacher is towards making him/her the facilitator of the teaching learning processes, by helping children develop concepts, become wiser, act as a supporter in enhancing learning through multiple exposures, encouraging the learner to continuously achieve his/her educational goal. S/he has to move away from transmitting information and forcing children to copy and, what is worse, to merely satisfy the data requirements of the cluster, block, district and state statistics. The power of the teacher unions can also be harnessed for their development. At present the role of the teacher unions is confined to protect their service rights and conditions, pay structures, transfers and promotions. Not much effort is taken for professionalization of teacher cadres and for professional development of teachers, and ultimately for improving children’s learning achievement. The way the system
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responds to the unions and their leaders also promotes this stance. The departments of education and government feel that it is their sole responsibility to providing programs for professional development of teachers through trainings, workshops, reading material, teaching learning material etc., but never expect that teacher unions to participate in these matters. The teachers do not look at them as a source for furthering their knowledge and experience but as a structure that would confront the education department on their behalf. It is, therefore, important to support and fund teacher unions for capacity building of teachers. They should also be supported for organizing seminars, workshops on various curriculum subjects to understand the nature of the subject and ways of teaching learning processes. They could also manage and set up subject forums in different areas and support new teacher’s onsite. The roles of the teachers, however, are often restricted by the curriculum. Therefore, curriculum needs to be changed in order to provide teachers enough freedom to exercise all their duties effectively and to their satisfaction. This includes focus on critical pedagogy and on the learning process rather than the outcomes. Space should also be created for teachers to undertake small scale research, particularly action research in the class through which they can improve their classroom transactions. The following area in which teacher’s role is crucial. A resourceful teacher … Generates effective learning experiences (Uses contemporary methods, with a focus on relationships and diversity) Enables children to ‘construct knowledge’ by using a mix of thought provoking questions and tasks. Adapts to differences (is not seen to be teaching all the children the same thing in the same way, but with differences in accordance with the diversity of learners). Ensures the participation and involvement of all by taking into account individual differences (such as learning needs and pace of learning, special needs etcetera). Promotes peer learning (mixed level). Uses the child’s context and culture while teaching participation and encouraging participative learning. Ensures the involvement of all by incorporating an element of challenge in the learning experiences generated in such a way that all children are engaged. Provides references relating to both the curriculum and the textbook, as well as what is beyond the textbook. Ensures that children too are able to provide references and examples from the local situation, in different aspects being learnt in class. Uses TLM well; ensures it is easily made by all, is practicable, versatile, and challenging. Uses ICT (information communication technology) to transact curriculum. Incorporates technology into teaching-learning processes effectively, including through self created materials. Provides opportunities to all during interaction. Provides opportunities to children, respecting their internal directions/capacities Identifies individual differences with a view to giving differential opportunity to each child (to each according to her or his need).
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Takes an inclusive approach and pays non-discriminatory, greater attention to those who need it. Displays sensitivity to the needs of differently-abled/vulnerable children, and sensitizes other children towards them. Creates a democratic classroom. (Some indicators of a democratic classroom are teacher’s willingness to talk and encourage students to talk, how the teacher relates to children, elicits their responses and evolves classroom process/activities along with the seating arrangement to serve those democratic end Gives prior information/hints about what is to be learnt next. Shares experience/ views with children/ teachers/parents about what is happening at various levels of learning. Links current teaching with what is learnt next Works with children as teacher’s team mates, and is able to establish common goals with children. (The teacher has teaching objectives, and students have learning objectives, which makes them a team). Creates encouraging conditions and space for all children to express themselves. Keenly observes and motivates children (encourages participation and asking of questions, appropriately appreciates and commends them, and enables all to experience success). Empathizes with children, and sees their world view. Uses humour in teaching, contextually and appropriately. Creates a congenial teaching learning environment with the participation of all (focusing on such key aspects as cleanliness, availability and use of material) Ensures better management: acts affectionately, counsels, recognizes effort, agrees with children on ground rules (and agrees on what is to be done if these are broken), interacts with parents to apprise them about student activities/ progress /relations. Attends to every child, and supports different groups in the class, (continuously and purposefully) moving around as and when necessary. Promotes self learning Plans for children falling below their optimal level of learning or tending to fall behind others Plans and prepares for class, based on an understanding of children’s background, levels, experiences and needs; decides upon the methods, teaching material, and assessment tools to be used. The teacher’s plan incorporates other aspects such as health improvement. Takes into account the emerging issues in the classroom, prepares accordingly to facilitate learning of all children in the class through direct experience, exposure to sites, and use of resource materials. Assesses the teaching process and learning as it is happening, and modifies further work/interaction as needed. (This indicator assumes that the teacher has the skill to analyse and interpret data). Prepares and uses competency-based test items (in a non-threatening way). Does follow up of evaluation, and keeps a record of progress. Takes further follow up action emerging from student evaluation, to address different learning needs of children.
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Maintains records of child-wise progress, analyses them, monitors and evaluates the child’s progress, and plans accordingly. Enables the child to evaluate her/himself. Promotes the peer evaluation process. Makes the child responsible for her or his own learning (i.e. the child knows what she or he is supposed to learn, is aware of lag, and able to make up). Organizes public demonstration of children’s performance Besides the academic aspects, a resourceful teacher… Takes an inclusive approach: pays non-discriminatory, greater attention to those who need it. Guides/nurtures the child through the different stages of learning/growing up (e.g. enables children to confide in the teacher, share their feelings, and helps them discriminate and make choices). Creates a classroom based on trust. Encourages students to reflect on good values and attitudes. Organizes health campaigns. Guides children in activities suitable for their overall development (beyond the formal curriculum). Promotes healthy relationships through personal example, demonstrates good qualities of citizenship and socially acceptable behaviour. Facilitates student government and participation in school. Models values/good practices and leads by example. Ensures each child participates in the area of her/his own interest Relates with children in a democratic, non-threatening, equitable and empathetic manner (encourages democratic functioning in the classroom). Supports and enables children’s participation in decision making and the resolution of issues Communicates /interacts with parents, especially on attendance and other relevant issues such as the child’s progress, pattern of behaviour, health and wellbeing. Understands the need to relate with the community and parents. Encourages participation of the community in school programmes (planning and implementation). Makes the community aware of the adequacy or not of school infrastructure and encourages it to be involved in the development and improvement of school facilities. Creates a congenial teaching learning environment with the participation of all (cleanliness, availability and responsible use of material). Enables the upkeep and cleanliness of the school and its surrounding environment, including the planting of trees etcetera. Creates a clean and hygienic environment by ensuring personal cleanliness and responsible usage of toilets, and the availability of safe drinking water facility for all children in school, in convergence with the community.
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1.12
ERRORS IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
Second language instruction can be conceptualized as falling into two broad categories: meaning-focused instruction (Long, 1996; Ellis, 2001) and form-focused instruction. Meaningfocused instruction is characterized by communicative language teaching and involves no direct, explicit attention to language form. The L2 is seen as a vehicle for learners to express their ideas. In contrast, form-focused instruction generally treats language as an object to be studied through discrete lessons targeting specific grammatical structures and rules. Such instruction can be called an isolated approach because attention to language form is isolated from a communicative context. Error correction in this context is often used to ensure that learners accurately use what they have just been taught; however, this is not the type of error correction currently receiving so much interest. The oral and written products of the learners may have certain errors in them. These errors are to be eliminated through editing. There are various areas in which learners may make errors such as thematic, syntactic, morphological, spelling and punctuation. 1.13
THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN ADDRESSING THE ERRORS
The role of teacher in the error correction is crucial. The following process is suggested for addressing the errors of the children through editing 1) Thematic editing: After the presentation of the teacher’s version of the targeted discourse, the teacher can interact following: ‘There are a few points in my presentation that have not appeared in your write-ups or presentations. What are those points? This helps the learners to introspect on what they had worked out by comparing their products with that of the teacher. The teacher may prompt their introspection and elicit the missing points. The learners incorporate these ideas also in their write-ups. 2) Syntactic editing: The teacher edits only one of the group products. To begin with the errors related to sentence structure are considered. There are three possible kinds of syntactic errors. These are: Excess words Missing words Wrong word order The teacher identifies the sentence with a wrong word order and poses the following question: There is a problem with the word order of this sentence. What changes would you like to make? In the case of a missing word, the teacher underlines the part of the sentence where the word is missing and asks, ‘There is a word missing here. Can you supply the missing word?’
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If it is a case of using excess word, the question will be: ‘There is an excess word used here. Can you identify it?’ After asking these questions the teacher may wait for some time. Most probably some learners may come out with their suggestions. If there is no response from the learners it is better to keep the issue aside for the time being. Suggesting corrections and giving explanations on grammaticality will not be advisable because these will contribute to learning language facts consciously and will not facilitate language acquisition, which is a non conscious process. While dealing with syntactic editing other categories of errors is not to be entertained. 3) Morphological editing: After addressing the syntactic errors the teacher focuses on errors related to morphology. There is a wide range of errors under this category. 1) Wrong Tense form: There are two tenses in English: the present and the past. The learner may confuse between the two and use present tense in the place of past tense and vice versa. The teacher has to underline the verb which is not in the proper form and ask, ‘This word is not in the proper form in this sentence. Do you want to change it?’ If there is no response from the learners, the teacher can suggest the correct version. 2) Aspectual Errors: There are two aspects in English: The Perfective and the Progressive. If there are aspectual errors, the teacher may underline the wrongly represented words and invite suggestions for refining the sentence. In this case also, the teacher can suggest the correct expressions. 3) The Passive: The learners may make errors with regard to passive constructions . The teacher has to invite suggestions for refining the expression. If the children fail to come out with their suggestions the correct expression is to be supplied. 4) Agreement: There are three kinds of agreement: Agreement in terms of Person, Number and Gender. In these cases also the teacher has to sensitize the learners on the correct expression. 5) Affixes: There are prefixes and suffixes. Together these are called affixes. Wrong prefix, Wrong suffix/ no suffix: In all these cases the teacher has to supply the correct versions. Care must be taken to avoid explicit teaching of grammatical points. Also, grammatical terminology (eg. noun, verb, past tense, etc.) is to be avoided. 4) Spelling and Punctuation: Punctuation errors may be addressed negotiating with the learners. In the case of spelling errors, it is better to tell the learners to check the spelling at home itself. They may seek the help of others, or even consult a dictionary. After editing one of the group products, the teacher can assign the remaining group products for editing by the learners themselves. They can do this in small groups.
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1.14
PARADIGM SHIFT IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
Since the early 1980s, the term ‘paradigm shift’ has been used as mans of thinking about change in education. In second language education, the principal paradigm shift occurred over the postulates of bahaiourist psychology and structural linguistics and toward cognitive and later, soico-cognitive psychology and more contextualized, meaning-based views of language. Majority of the materials used in the field belong to the behaviourist paradigm. The insights derived from current understandings on language and language acquisitions are not reflected in them. They do not treat language as discourses but focus on fragments of language. Though a variety of discourses are introduced, the treatment is seen invariably at the sentence level or word level. It is observed that most teachers still take recourse to mother tongue translation. The classrooms continue to be teacher-dominated. The focus is mostly on giving fixed information as input and taking out this as output. The concept of language teaching and learning has more or less narrowed down to asking comprehension questions and eliciting fixed responses. Discourse input and discourse output are by and large neglected. A radical shift came almost a decade ago when the child’s capacity to construct knowledge (language) as a natural learner was recognized as central to the transaction of the curriculum, and the teacher’s role was primarily as facilitator of the learning process. The knowledge, thus gained, is an outcome of their engagement with the world around when they explore, respond, invent, and make meaning of it. It means that the focus shifted to the process of learning. We expect the student at the upper primary level to construct more varieties of discourses, both orally and in the written form. The discourses constructed at this level should be linguistically at a higher level for which indicators are to be clearly defined: The textbooks also need to be changed in tune with the new concept of construction of knowledge/language. The textbook should be a powerful tool which leads the learning activities forward. It has a prominent role among the different materials which help the child to construct knowledge. It should be arranged in such a way in the classroom that it becomes a chief resource for the construction of knowledge within the classroom. The textbook should contain all the basic information needed for knowledge construction as well as hints for various activities in the classroom. The shift is necessary in second language teaching which insists a change from . . . skill- based approach to knowledge –based approach learning model to acquisition model reproduction of information to construction of knowledge fragmentary to holistic approach
1.15
SUM UP
It is evident that the student teachers should have clear understanding of the aims and objectives of teaching English at upper primary level. S/he should have awareness on the state policies in language education, especially, in teaching English. Since the environment of our country is multilingual, we have to know how multilingualism can be used as a resource rather
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than a hindrance. The use of mother tongue plays vital role in teaching English. The student teachers should know how to use mother tongue effectively without translation in the English class. Here the role of the teacher is very crucial. S/he has to perform multifarious roles to facilitate the acquisition of English language by children. During their acquisition, children may commit errors related to theme, syntax, morphology, spelling and punctuation. The teacher has to negotiate with the children to edit the written products of the children. Finally the student teachers have to understand the shift that has taken place in various aspects of teaching/learning process like, designing of material, classroom transaction process and assessment procedures. 1.16
ASSIGNMENT
1) Discuss how mother tongue is used to teach English in detail. 2) Discuss the role of the teacher in organizing the English classroom. 3) Discuss the need and importance of teacher preparation in handling English classes effectively. 4) How do you grow as a professional English teacher? 5) What strategies do you follow to become a facilitator in encouraging children acquire English language? 6) What types of errors are made / committed by the children in acquiring English language? 7) How do you treat the errors of the children? 8) How do you digest the paradigm shift in your English classroom? 1.17
PROJECT WORK
1) Go through the textbooks of classes VI to VIII and make a note of the selection of texts and tasks and verify whether the aims and objectives are being realized or not? 2) Go through the position papers of NCF 2005, and APSCF 2011. Bring out the similarities and differences regarding the suggestions and recommendations related to English language teaching. 3) Observe the children’s written products and prepare a report on the errors committed by them. 4) Conduct editing session by following the suggestions made and makes a report. 5) Observe the senior teacher’s class and find out how the paradigm shift has taken place?
REFERENCES: NCF 2005 document APSCF 2011 document Position paper of National Focus Group- English Source books of D.El.Ed of various states. Hand book for D.Ed and B.Ed published by APSCERT. http://isrj.org/UploadedData/1010.pd B.W. Somatkar.
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UNIT – 2 DEVELOPING ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS - I
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DEVELOPING ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS – I Listening is an art that requires attention over talent, spirit over ego, others over self. – Dean Jackson
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Listening is a very important skill in language acquisition. Unfortunately, it has been neglected in the second language classrooms and the school curriculum. Students do not get sufficient opportunities to develop their listening skills. In classrooms, students mostly listen to their teacher, that is, through explanations and instructions given by the teacher. If you look at the contexts outside the classroom, we listen to many different people for many different purposes. Also, we do not just listen but we do respond and react to what they say. Thus, Listening and Speaking go hand in hand. They are the two sides of a coin. Both are important and inseparable. Listening and speaking are very crucial in acquiring any language. In mother tongue we get them naturally without much conscious effort whereas in any other language we have to acquire them with conscious effort. It is important for teachers to create authentic listening situations in the classroom so that students can develop their listening comprehension skills. For this to realize teachers have to make use of authentic listening material in the classroom like advertisem*nts, cricket commentaries, Railway announcements etc. If the child gets authentic listening exposure, it will be easy for him/her to acquire fluency in his/her speech. In the beginning, fluency is to be encouraged rather than accuracy. Of course, accuracy will be attained through conscious and meaningful practice. In order to improve the fluency of the child, the child should be given scope for interaction. Interaction leads to fluency. There is scope for different types of interaction to take place in the English language classroom. The child interacts with the teacher, with the material and with his/her classmate. During interaction, there will be scope for questioning, responding to a question, or conversation, dialoguing, etc. Hence meaningful interaction is a source for acquisition of the target language. Hence the teacher has to provide context / slot for generating interaction thereby involving the child in meaning making process. Through interaction oral discourses may be evolved. The teacher has to make use of the possible contexts of a reading text/any picture for producing oral discourses in the classroom. The normal and simple oral discourse is a description. The other oral discourses include: conversations, story narration, poem/ song, short play, choreography, debate and discussion, speech, compeering etc. All discourses have their own features. So the teacher has to evolve indicators for assessing the discourses. In order to equip the child use appropriate word, vocabulary is to be taught. There are many techniques and strategies of teaching vocabulary. Grammatical awareness is one of the academic standards targeted in English. Hence grammar is to be taught. Though grammar teaching is essential, it doesn’t mean that grammar is taught in isolation. Grammar teaching may take place through editing of oral as well as written discourses.
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2.2
OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit, student teachers will be able to recall what listening and speaking are understand the need and importance of listening and speaking in acquiring English language come out with their perception/s on fluency and accuracy in speaking English language understand the relevance of interaction in enhancing listening and speaking among the children get an overview of the material which is used for providing authentic listening exposure realize the need for producing oral discourses for developing listening and speaking produce various oral discourses in English understand the indicators for assessing the oral discourses understand the need and importance of developing vocabulary of the children understand the relevance of teaching grammar 2.3
LISTENING
Listening is an essential skill, present in most of the activities we carry out throughout our lives, as Lindsay and Knight says ‘We listen to a wide variety of things, for example; what someone says during a conversation, face to face or on the phone; announcements giving information, for example, at an airport or railway station; the weather forecast on the radio; a play on the television; music; someone else’s conversation (eavesdropping); a lecture; professional advice, for example, at the doctor’s, in the bank; instructions, for example, on how to use a photocopier or other machinery; directions; a recorded dialogue in class’ (2006: 45) Besides, Listening is a complex process due to its double psychological and social nature: Listening is a psychological phenomenon, which takes place on a cognitive level inside people’s heads, and a social phenomenon, which develops interactively between people and the environment surrounding them. It is considered listening as a complex process, which needs to be understood in order to teach it, and subsequently, evaluate it before integrating it with phonological aspects and with the skill of speaking (Bueno, Madrid and McLaren, 2006:282). It has taken many years to give the listening skill the importance it deserves in second and foreign language learning in the teaching profession. Rivers (1966: 196) claimed, “Speaking does not itself constitute communication unless what is said is comprehended by another person. Teaching the comprehension of spoken speech is, therefore, of primary importance if the communication aim is to be reached”. However, Morley (1972: 7) notes that “perhaps an assumption that listening is a reflex, a little like breathing - listening seldom receives overt teaching attention in one’s native language – has marked the importance and complexity of listening with understanding in a nonnative language”. Contrary to what everybody thinks about foreign language learning, listening competence is wider than speaking competence. This is the reason why, recently, the language teaching profession has brought into focus on the listening comprehension. According to Nunan, (2001: 23) ‘Listening’ is a six-staged process, consisting of ‘Hearing, Attending, Understanding, Remembering, Evaluating and Responding’. These stages occur in sequence and rapid succession.
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Let us now look at the different types of listening we resort to in real life: Face-to-face: Distant, but two-way: External to listener: Listening for pleasure: Informative: Discussions Instructional: Persuasive:
Conversation Obtaining and giving information Negotiation Phone conversations Taking a message Announcements Instructions Answer phone messages Drama excerpts Film clips Jokes, Extended anecdotes Songs News headlines News items Documentaries Interviews Sports commentaries English lessons English-medium lessons Lectures TV ads
When dealing with the listening process, it must be mentioned that there are two possible ways of performing this task: 1) the ‘Top-down’ listening process and 2) the ‘Bottom up’ listening process. The former consists of understanding the general meaning of a listening selection without paying attention to specific structures, words and so on. It is like a general overview where the listener gets a general view of the listening passage while still understanding the general idea. On the other hand, experts talk about / refer to the opposite process, that is, ‘Bottom up’ listening process. ‘Bottom up’ listening process is essentially a linguistic process in which we try to make sense of acoustic signals by using knowledge of language. According to this model, sound is assumed to be decoded in a linear fashion – from phonemes, to words, to phrases, to utterances, to complete meaningful texts- whereby “meaning itself is derived as the last step in the process. (2006: 286). For the ‘Top-down’ listening process, students take into account the context and do not need to pay attention on specific details while in Bottom up listening process, students have to pay attention to, because here, specific details are very important to understand the whole meaning of the conversation or another kind of listening activity. The listener focuses on individual words and phrases, and achieves understanding by stringing these detailed elements together to build up a whole. Understanding the exact word is more important. Students usually combine both the processes. In real life listening, students use a combination of the two processes, giving more emphasis to one or the other depending on their reason for listening. According to Lindsay and Knight, people have four different purposes when they listen: We listen for a purpose, but this purpose can be very different depending on the situation: listening for specific details, listening for general meaning, listening for the general idea or gist. There is also a difference between listening: for information; for enjoyment or social reasons; to learn new language (2006: 46). However, from the point of view of Anderson & Lynch, the purpose when we are listening can be either: transactional, where “the main purpose is to achieve a successful transfer or exchange of information”, or it can be interactional, “the use of language for establishing and maintaining social contact” (1988:15). When we are working listening in the classroom the best option is to think about how we listen in real life. Teachers should give students the opportunity to listen actively providing different accents, useful and different topics, as well as situations that students can use in their real world. A good teaching method would try to combine both purposes. When teachers are teaching listening, it is very important to follow a pattern. Bueno, Madrid and McLaren establish the following pattern:
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Pre-listening: Establish context Create motivation for listening Pre-teach only critical vocabulary While listening: General questions on context and attitude of speakers Pre-set questions Intensive listening Checking answers to questions Post listening (optional): Functional language in listening passage Learners infer the meaning of unknown words from the sentences in which they appear Final play; learners look at transcript 2.3.1
SUB SKILLS OF LISTENING
The following are some of the sub-skills of listening: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 21)
ability to retain chunks of language of different lengths for short periods ability to discriminate between the distinctive sounds of the target language ability to recognise the stress patterns of words ability to recognise the rhythmic structure of English ability to recognise the functions of stress and intonation to signal the information structure of utterances ability to identify words in stressed and unstressed situations ability to recognise reduced forms of words ability to distinguish word boundaries ability to recognise typical word-order patterns in the target language ability to recognise vocabulary use in core conversational topics ability to detect key words (i.e. those which identify topics and propositions) ability to guess the meaning of words. from the contexts in which they appear ability to recognise grammatical word classes ability to recognise major syntactic patterns and devices ability to recognise cohesive devices in spoken discourse ability to recognise elliptical forms of grammatical units and. sentences ability to detect sentence constituents ability to distinguish between major and minor constituents ability to detect meaning expressed in different grammatical forms / sentence types ability to recognise the communicative function of utterances, according to situations, participants, goals ability to reconstruct or infer situations, goals, participants, procedures
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22) ability to use real-world knowledge and experience to work out purpose, goals, settings, procedures 23) ability to predict outcomes from events described 24) ability to infer links and connections between events 25) ability to detect causes and effects from events 26) ability to distinguish between literal and applied meanings 27) ability to identify and reconstruct topics and coherent structure from ongoing discourse involving two or more speakers 28) ability to recognise coherence in discourse, and detect such relations as main idea, supporting idea, given information, new information, generalisation, exemplification ability to process speech at different rates 29) ability to process speech containing pauses, errors, corrections 30) ability to make use of facial, paralinguistic and other clues to work out meaning 31) ability to adjust listening strategies to different kinds of listener purposes or goals 32) ability to signal comprehension or lack of comprehension, verbally and non-verbally (Richards, 1983) 2.3.2
LISTENING TASKS
Dicto-gloss: Dicto-gloss is an interesting variation of the old fashioned way of giving dictation. Dictogloss is a classroom dictation activity where learners are required to re-construct a short text by listening and noting down key words, which are then used as a base for re-construction. For example: Learners discuss the forest. The teacher then explains the task, and reads a short text on the forest to the class, who just listen. The teacher reads the text again, and the learners take notes. In groups, the learners then reconstruct the text. In the classroom … Dicto-gloss is often regarded as a multiple-skill and systems activity. Learners practise listening, writing and speaking (by working in groups) and use vocabulary, grammar and discourse systems in order to complete the task. Count it The teacher plays a recording, reads a passage or a list of words and asks learners to count the number of times a sound occurs. This technique can be used to get learners to identify the number of times a specific word or a grammatical category, for example adjectives, occurs. Identify it Here, words with contrasting sounds are read in isolation and learners have to say what the sound is (for example: 'vine' and 'wine'). The number of times the sound occurs is noted and
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answers checked later. For example: 1. /v/ 2. /w/ 3. /w/ 4. /w/ 5. /v/. Sentences, instead of isolated words, can also be used. For example: The vines/wines of France are famous. What is it? The teacher puts up two pictures or draws two pictures on the blackboard. A list of words is also put up. The class has to pick up words which have the same sounds and list them as the teacher says them. For example: Word list: tip team seep beat deed Learners then say the words aloud. Sounds which are difficult for the class can be identified. For example: /p/ and /f/, / / and /t/, /aI/ and /eI/. Grid Grids can be used at various levels. At the elementary stage, the teacher reads out just two or three sentences and learners fill the grid. The example below illustrates how learners listen to a text and put a cross or a tick in each box of a grid. The teacher will talk to you about himself/herself. Listen and write notes in the table: Town Brothers/Sisters Qualifications Interests Hobbies Children Family tree A different type of graphic representation commonly used is the family tree. This can be drawn on the blackboard for learners to copy into their notebooks. The learners listen to the tape or the teacher, and fill in whatever is asked for in the task, for example names. The text can be simple. Timetables, bio-data forms, passport/bank forms These can all be used to give practice in and to test listening skills. A text can be read out and the learner asked to fill in details. Alternatively, there could be a conversation between two persons, (for example, a bank manager and a client wishing to open an account/a passport officer and a traveler) and the learners could be asked to fill in the relevant details.
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Flowcharts They too can be used as a task sheet for a listening activity. Again, the input could be a text or a conversation. For example, the text could be about how to make tea. Learners first copy the flowchart with blanks in their notebooks. Then they listen to what is said and fill in the blanks. Maps Maps (either blank or partly filled) can also form the task sheet in listening activities; They can be used to: mark a route, locate a particular place and locate where different places are/where different people live. Rahim lives in MIG colony. Her house faces a main road He left home at 8 a.m. to go to the market. He turned right on the main road as soon as she left the house. He did not want to take the footpath behind her house as the rains had made the path wet and muddy. He walked along the main road and turned right at the big crossing. On reaching the main road she turned right again and went straight. She avoided the short cut through the park. Mark Rahim's route to the market in the map. Think it over 1) Can you list at least three sub-skills that the activities above focus on? 2) Does it require any other knowledge besides that of the English language to do these activities? Stories/Passages These can be used to get the learners to listen to a gist. A set of titles are given and the learners are asked to match what they read to the title. For example: Do exercise regularly, follow a balanced diet, and do something nice for someone. That's the advice you may soon get from your doctor. An explosion of new research is pointing to the benefits of altruism. Choice of titles: Exercise is good Eat well, live long The power of goodness 2.4
SPEAKING
Speaking is generally thought to be the most important of the four skills. Indeed, one frustration commonly voiced by learners is that they have spent years studying English, but still they cannot speak it. In spite of this, it has traditionally been forced into the background while
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we, teachers of English, have spent all our classroom time trying to teach our students how to write, to read and sometimes even to listen in L2 because grammar has a long written tradition (Bueno, Madrid and Mclaren, 2006: 321). Brown (1994) labels speaking as the most challenging skill for students because of the set of features that characterize oral discourse: - Contractions, vowel reductions and elision; - The use of slang and idioms: - Stress, rhythm and intonation; - The need to interact with at least one other speaker. The most difficult aspect of spoken English is that it is always accomplished via interaction with at least one other speaker and this is one reason why many of us were shocked and disappointed. Speaking is an “activity requiring the integration of many subsystems…all these factors combine to make speaking a second or foreign language a formidable task for language learners…yet for many people, speaking is seen as the central skill” (Bailey and Savage 1994: 6-7). There are numerous daily life situations where people need speaking, such as talking to someone face to face, communicating through the phone, answering questions, asking for directions, in shops, meetings or chatting with their friends, to name a few. People spend great deal of their time interacting with more people and, each of these situations requires a different register according to the formality of the moment. We speak for many reasons- to be sociable, because we want something, because we want other people to do something, to do something for someone else, to respond to someone else, to express our feelings or opinion about something, to exchange information, to refer to an action or event in the past, present, or future, the possibility of something happening, and so on (Lindsay and Knight, 2006: 58). Speakers have a great range of expressive possibilities at their command. Apart from the actual words they use they can vary their intonation and stress which helps them to show which part of what they are saying is most important. By varying the pitch and intonation in their voice they clearly convey their attitude to what they are saying, too; they can indicate interest or lack of it, for example, and they can show whether they wish to be taken seriously. At any point in a speech event speakers can rephrase what they are saying; they can speed up or slow down. This will often be done in response to the feedback they are getting from their listeners who will show through a variety of gestures, expressions and interruptions that they do not understand. And in a face to face interaction the speaker can use a whole range of facial expressions, gestures and general body language to help to convey the message (Harmer, 2007: 53). Many English teachers claim that the best way to acquire speaking skills is by interacting. This aim is fulfilled by means of communicative language teaching and collaborative learning. Communicative language teaching is based on real-life situations that require communication. Following this method in ESL classes, there will be opportunities for the students to communicate with their partners in the target language. It is teachers´ task to create situations in class where students have real-life communication, activities related to their daily life and meaningful tasks that give them the chance to practice oral language. As it has been previously said, speaking is usually the most problematic skill to teach because, apart from its difficulty, teachers do not have much time to concentrate on this skill.
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The following three are the key features of learners’ speech: Fluency: Speech where the message is communicated coherently with few pauses and hesitations, thus causing minimal comprehension difficulties for the listeners. Focus : Meaning. Accuracy: Speech where the message is communicated using correct grammar. The notion of accuracy can also be expanded to include correct pronunciation according to target language norms. Focus: Form. Core Skill
a) Pronunciation produce the sounds of the target language at the segmental and
Specific Skills
Articulate the vowels and consonants and blended sounds of English clearly. Assign word stress in prominent words to indicate meaning Use different intonation patterns to communicate new and old information.
suprasegmental levels. b) Speech function perform a precise communicative function or speech act.
c) Interaction management
Request: permission, help, clarification, assistance, etc. Express:encouragement, agreement, thanks, regret, good wishes, disagreement, disapproval, complaints, tentativeness, etc. Explain: reasons, purposes, procedures, processes, cause and effect, etc. Give: instructions, directions, commands, orders, opinions, etc. Offer: advice, condolences, suggestions, alternatives, etc. Describe: events, people, objects, settings, moods, etc.
interactions.
Initiate, maintain, and end conversations. Offer turns. Direct conversations. Clarify meaning. Change topics. Recognize and use verbal and non-verbal cues.
d) Discourse
Establish coherence and cohesion in extended discourse
Regulate conversations and discussions during
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organization Create extended discourse in various spoken genres,
through lexical and grammatical choices. Use discourse markers and intonation to signpost changes in the discourse, such as change of topic. Use linguistic conventions to structure spoken texts for various communicative purposes, e.g., recounts and narratives.
according to socioculturally appropriate conventions of language. Complexity: Speech where the message is communicated precisely. More advanced grammatical forms are used, such as subordination and clausal embeddings, which are appropriate for speech in relation to the social and cultural context, as well as the roles of, and relationships with, interlocutors. Focus: Meaning and form According to Thornbury (2007: 40), the process of developing speaking skills consists of three stages: awareness – learners are made aware of features of target language knowledge, appropriation – these features are integrated into their existing knowledge-base, autonomy – learners develop the capacity to mobilize these features under real-time conditions without assistance. The core skills and specific skills of speaking are given below: 2.4.1
SOME SPEAKING ACTIVITIES
Questions and answers 1) A visual is displayed which encourages learners to answer questions and also ask questions to other learners. This technique can be used at the practice stage. It can also be used in an information gap exercise communicatively. In pairs, one learner asks questions about a picture that the second learner has, and the first learner draws the same picture based on the information s/he can elicit. The picture is then compared with the original. These are known as information-gap activities. 2) Two sets of picture cards are needed for this activity. The cards can be as follows: The cards are distributed among groups of learners in the class. The teacher has a card, which matches
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one of the learner's cards. Each learner asks some questions of the following kind (both 'wh-' and 'yes/no') to find out if his/her card matches the teacher's card: How many triangles are there? Does your card have a square in it? The same cards can be used for pair work in the following manner: A learner has a 'master' sheet and a number of cards. His/her partner has only one of these cards. The first learner asks questions such as those given below to find out which of ‘his/her’ cards match his/her partner's card. Does your card have a square on it? Does it have a triangle? Is the triangle big or small? Where is the triangle? Is there a small square on the top right corner? Is there a circle on the top left corner? The answers to the questions will help the learner say, for example: You have card E. After the answer is checked, learners exchange roles (with a different card). 3) The twenty-question game In this game learners ask yes/no questions to find out the object/ person the teacher has thought of. 4) Surveys and interviews This technique is a communicative exercise in which an interviewer or surveyor tries to find out a person's tastes, preferences, attitudes, etc. 5) What do you think? This technique involves the use of audio/visual clues such as the following to get learners to interpret what they have heard or seen. Firstly, questions about visual comprehension can be asked. What is the man doing? What is there on the doorstep? Is the door open or shut? Is the man happy or unhappy?
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These can be followed by questions that require interpretation. Why do you think the man is unhappy? How long do you think he has been sitting on the steps? Why isn't he inside the house? Whose house is it? How do you know? Dialogues and role play These techniques deal with the interactional aspect of speaking. Some of the techniques commonly used are outlined below: 1) Dialogue chains can be used to practise functions of language such as greeting, agreeing, disagreeing, asking for information and suggestions. The situations should be real and plausible—learners should feel that they might be in such a situation. Aspects of appropriacy as well as accuracy are taken care of in such activities. 2) Role play is a popular technique used in classes to teach speaking skills. There are three kinds of role play. a) Totally controlled: The roles are written out and the learners have to just speak the lines. For example, an exchange between a shopkeeper and a customer may be tried out in this way. b) Clued: Here linguistic and content clues are provided. For example, a clued role-play card would read as follows: place : bus station characters : booking clerk and traveller role play : A traveller wants to buy a ticket to Vijayawada on a super deluxe bus. He wants to know the fare, time of departure, time of arrival. language you : Could you tell me… What time .., Will it might need ..., etc. c) Free: Here only the roles or characters are given and learners have to develop the exchange in a suitable situation. Or, alternatively, characters are given in a particular situation and learners have to develop the exchange appropriate to it. Example: A manager and a worker in a factory A doctor and a policeman on a traffic island An emergency operation in a theatre (three people) An examination halt in a curfew-bound area (five people)
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Problems These are a good source for making learners speak. The learners will be engaged in grappling with a problem, and they will need to use language to solve it. A man has to cross a stream in a boat which can take only two persons or things at a time. The man has a goat, a tiger and a bundle of hay. How does he cross the stream? Opinions When opinions are asked for, especially on controversial topics or situations, a lot of discussion can be generated, and learners will use language to communicate. Here are some examples of ethical issues that may be discussed in class. Your grandmother, who is old and very fond of you, makes a dish of milk sweets for you. You tell your grandmother that the dish is delicious, even though you hate milk sweets. Are you a liar? You see a close friend of yours stealing a pen from a classmate's bag. The classmate complains to the teacher. The teacher asks the class if they know anything about it. What do you do? Experiences Learners can be encouraged from the primary classes to relate their experiences, however simple or ordinary. This is a step towards mastering communicative skills. For example: What did you do on Sunday? Thomas, you were ill for two days. Could you tell us .what happened, please: Renu, you went to Chennai for your cousin's wedding? We would like to hear about your experiences on the train and at the wedding. Dreams All of us like to talk about our ambitions and dreams. This activity is open-ended and can lead to a lot of speaking. Visuals can be used as input in the early stages. For example: Look at the given pictures and say: a) what you would like to become. b) where you would like to go. c) what you would like to buy.
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Ideas and suggestions Learners may be given ideas and topics for discussion, for example 'How I would make things better.' This title can cover different things, from school amenities to municipal work to administering a country. Young learners could be motivated by showing them children's pages in the daily newspapers. It would, incidentally, make the learner feel that a young person's opinion is respected enough to be published. 2.5
THE IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING AND SPEAKING
Listening and Speaking are two sides of the same coin—both are closely interlinked. The table below, which lists some sub-skills, illustrates this point. Listening
Speaking
identify sounds
produce meaningful sounds
segment sounds into meaningful groups
produce sounds in meaningful chunks
understand syntactic patterns
produce language in syntactically acceptable pattern forms
interpret stress, rhythm and intonation
produce language using proper stress, rhythm and intonation
identify information/gist
convey information
identify emotional/
formulate appropriate response attitudinal tone
2.6
ACCURACY AND FLUENCY IN LISTENING
If you speak English with a high level of accuracy it means you speak correctly, with very few mistakes. If you speak fluently it means you speak easily, intelligibly, reasonably and without undue hesitation. Accuracy and fluency are the two factors which determine the success of English language students in the future. It is a general problem faced by language teachers today, whether to focus on accuracy or fluency. Accuracy refers to the ability of the learner to produce grammatically correct sentences. The learner should not only know correct grammatical rules of the language but also able to speak and write accurately. Fluency refers to a level of proficiency in communication. It is the ability to produce written and spoken sentences with ease, efficiency, without pauses or a breakdown of communication. Generally language teachers have to deal with heterogeneous students having different language background and language skills, different world views, age levels, experiences and point of view. Some students are accurate in speaking and writing but hesitate to speak in public. On the other hand, few students are fluent but not accurate. Every student wants to be accurate as well as fluent in speaking and writing.
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In reality accuracy and fluency are closely related, which leads to the notion that accuracy as well as fluency is necessary for successful communication. As language teachers, we should be able to explore along with our students not only grammar of forms but also grammar of functions. A grammar of forms makes us familiar with the grammatical structures and rules designed to show how the systems and subsystems of a language work. But a grammar of function puts together (i) the grammatical structures of a language and (ii) how these can be used by a variety of people in a variety of situations for interpersonal and organisational communication. In our language classes, we go through many activities to develop accuracy and fluency in reading, writing, listening and speaking. Brumfit distinguishes between these two activities, “extensive reading is aimed at fluency but much intensive reading work is aimed at accuracy; free and situational writing exercises are aimed at fluency but all controlled and much guided writing is aimed at accuracy; listening exercises are aimed at accuracy but casual listening in the classroom has a major role as a fluency activity.” (Brumfit, 1984, p.53) 2.7
THE ROLE OF INTERACTION IN DEVELOPING LISTENING AND SPEAKING
Three types of interactions will take place in the classroom. 1) Teacher –pupil interaction 2) Pupil – pupil interaction 3) Pupil – text – interaction Let us identify the slots in classroom transaction where the teacher can interact with the learners. Initial interaction Interaction based on the picture. Incidental interaction that might take place at any time. Are there any specific objectives for each instance of interaction? How can we improve the quality of interaction?
If so, what are they?
At various points the teachers have to interact with the learners. In order to make interaction meaningful we must know why we are interacting with the learners. Please go through the following: A) Common objectives of interaction Sharing of ideas. Providing rich, authentic listening input. Embedding functional aspects of language in natural and authentic contexts. Maintaining rapport with the learners. Dialoguing with the learners.
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Giving feedback to the learners for taking them to the next higher level of learning. Maintaining the continuity of the theme in all the modules of transaction. B) Specific Objectives 1) Initial Interaction Taking out the learners’ assumptions on the theme at hand Taking out learner’s perceptions on what has been watched Leading the learners to the theme /issue Making learners predict what they are going to listen to or read 2) Interaction while listening input is presented: Triggering divergent thinking Eliciting learners perceptions on the theme Making predictions on what might follow Taking out learners’ reflections on what he/she has listened to Analyzing the situation critically
2.8
AUTHENTIC MATERIAL FOR LISTENING
Marrow relates it to “a stretch of real language produced by a real speaker or writer for a real audience and designed to carry a real message of some sort”(1977:13). Harmer (1983:146) says that authentic texts (either written or spoken) are those which are designed for native speakers: They are real text designed not for language students, but for the speakers of the language in question. David Nunan (1989:54) thinks that a rule of thumb for authenticity here is any material which has not been specifically produced for the purposes of language teaching. According to Gebhard (1996), Authentic Listening-Viewing Materials: TV commercials, quiz shows, cartoons, news clips, comedy shows, movies, soap operas, professionally audiotaped short stories and novels, radio ads, songs, documentaries, and sales pitches. Advantages of using authentic listening materials Exposing students to the real language: Compared with non-authentic listening materials, authentic listening materials have the advantage of exposing students to the real language—language used in real life. This can be seen clearly by looking at the different features of the two kinds of materials. Factors to consider when selecting authentic listening materials 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Learner’s language proficiency level and the linguistic demands of the listening text. Learner’s language proficiency level and the linguistic demands of the listening text Cultural appropriateness Cognitive demands Exploitability
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Applying authentic materials Integrating target culture with language teaching Helping students to adapt to authentic listening situation Predicting Integrated skills on activating students’ authentic response There are some ways in which a teacher can ensure that an authentic recording falls within the listening competence of the learners. 1) Simplifying the task: Teachers may counter-balance the increased linguistic difficulty of the text by simplifying the requirements of the task (Anderson and Lynch: 1988). It is not necessarily the language that makes a piece of listening difficult. Difficulty may also arise from the task that is set. It is possible to use a listening passage which is well beyond the learners’ level, provided that what is demanded of the learner is correspondingly simple. If one notches up the text, one notches down the task. (Field: 2008) 2) Grading the text: As a teacher, if you prepare to use authentic recording with your students, you should have a large enough collection of recording samples, then you can grade authentic recording in accordance with the proficiency level of your learners. You should bear the following in your mind when doing the grading: More frequent vocabulary; Simple syntax; Simpler and less dense ideas and facts; A degree of redundancy, with ideas/facts expressed more than once; A degree of repetition, with the same form of words repeated; A very specific context or genre of communication which to some extent predetermines how participants behave; (Field:2008) 3) Staging the listening: With a piece of authentic recording, teachers may design many tasks. In the classroom, they should begin with very simple tasks, and progress to the tasks that are more demanding. In all, we can find every reason that foreign language teachers should introduce authentic listening materials to the learners at all levels to increase their exposure to the real target language in use. Quite a lot of evidence shows that learners feel more comfortable and motivated with authentic listening materials. There are a lot of ways to help us to achieve this without demanding too much of the learners. 2.9
DEVELOPING ORAL DISCOURSES
The five major benefits of targeting oral discourses in the classroom are: They are learner-centered. They require the use of all four language skills. They provide learners with realistic language tasks. They have value outside the language classroom. They improve learners’ motivation.
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Oral presentations encourage production of oral discourses in the given context appropriately. Oral discourses help learners learn foreign language better. The oral discourses can be constructed in the classroom with proper scaffolding by the teacher. 2.9.1
DESCRIPTION
The classroom process of constructing this discourse (description) depends upon what type of description is targeted and the stage at which the learners are undertaking the task. Let us see what will make the theme of the description. Describing a person Details such as who and what the person is, the physical attributes, societal status, achievements, contributions, personal impressions. Describing an object Details such as what it is, where it is found, physical properties such as shape and colour, what it is used for etc. Describing a place Scenic details of the location, images, sensory perceptions etc. Describing events Details such as what the event is, where it is taking place, the persons or things involved, the order of events, scenic details, images, sensory perceptions etc. Describing a process Details such as what it is for, things involved, sequence etc. Features: Creating vivid images Using variety of sentence forms Proper sequencing of ideas (avoiding digression) Giving personal reflections on the event or persons Using appropriate cohesive devices such as pronouns, connectives etc. Using syntactically well-formed constructions Using proper word forms (tense, aspects, PNG agreement markers, affixes) Maintaining conventions of writing–spelling Maintaining conventions of writing
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2.9.2
DIALOGUE / CONVERSATION
Conversation is one of the most widely used discourses in day to day communication. Conversations in English language classrooms are considered to be not the result of language learning but rather the context in which learning actually occurs (Thornbury 2007). On the other hand, it is not easy to incorporate meaningful conversational interactions into a planned lesson because casual conversation is, by its very nature, spontaneous and unstructured. It becomes easier when conversation activities are based on a set of selected themes which are previously negotiated with learners. Useful conversational routines (opening and closing formulas, interrupting, asking for clarification) and helpful communication strategies (paraphrasing and reformulating, using vague language and hesitation fillers) should be taught and practiced beforehand to give students the appropriate devices for successful communication but elements of personalization should be given an equally important status. Conversation activities may proceed from more controlled ones, in which the language is limited by instructions, through awareness activities which make use of audio- visual materials, fluency practice, to feedback sessions during which students analyse their own interactions (Nolasco and Arthur 1987). We converse generally with different people daily for different purposes, like conversing on telephone, expressing likes and dislikes, opinions, making a request, seeking permission, directions, thanking and responding to others, clarifying, inviting , complaining, congratulating, apologizing, advising, suggesting, agreeing and disagreeing, expressing sympathy, etc. Telephone conversation: Certain etiquette is followed in both kinds of telephonic conversations. For example, polite tone, precision in expression and clarity of the message are required for telephonic conversation. So to take part in a telephonic conversation, it is necessary that one listens carefully, interprets well, makes logical connections in mind, gives references etc., while responding. General Conversation: Requests, Permissions and Directions, etc. Requests range from very formal to informal. Indirect requests, such as ‘I wonder if you could help me with my luggage’ is more formal than the direct request ‘Could you help me with my luggage’ ‘Would you ……..’ and ‘Could you …..’ are more polite and formal than ‘Will you …….’ and ‘Can you …….’ Use the rising tone when your request is in the form of a question. Adding expressions such as ‘I’m sorry to trouble you, but ……….’ To a request makes them more polite. When agreeing to request, you can show your willingness by using expressions such as ‘Certainly’ or ‘Of course’. When declining a request, you can show your willingness by using expressions such as ‘I wish I could have ……., but …….’
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Features of conversation: Writing dialogues with five to ten exchanges Using proper sequence of exchanges Sustaining the conversation with social norms (being polite, reflecting relationships etc.) Using discourse markers (well, precisely etc.) Using short responses and tags wherever necessary Using dialogues apt to the context Using appropriate cohesive devises Using well-formed constructions Maintaining conventions of writing–spelling Using proper punctuations 2.9.3
STORY / NARRATIVE
While selecting a story to be told, a teacher needs to make it sure that story selected is of the interest and levels of the students. Since story telling is an art, a teacher should use his/her both verbal and non-verbal inputs effectively in order to have attentive ears of the students. Once the story is told, the teacher may ask questions, in order to ensure whether students understood it or not. By encouraging the learners to narrate/tell a story, they get language proficiency. Thus, they will be able to 1) use a variety of sentences, 2) bring out emotions and feelings, 3) express sensual perceptions based on the situation, 4) understand a series of events and dialogues. Features: Containing a sequence of events and dialogues Evoking sensory perceptions and images Evoking emotions Writing about setting and other details Using characterization Maintaining coherence Reflecting point of view Using well-formed constructions Maintaining conventions of writing–spelling Using proper punctuations 2.9.4
POEM / SONG Uses simple structural patterns Has a rhyme scheme Uses specific patterns (rhythm / structure /metre / music / theme, etc. Expresses emotions and reflections. Uses images, thoughts and feelings.
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Uses figures of speech. Contains assonance and alliteration. Reveals the poet’s point of view. 2.9.5
SHORT PLAY / DRAMA
Some of the stories can be performed as role-plays and dramas. This liberates the children from the lethargy of reading the text mechanically and reproducing the information given in it. They make sense of the text through collaborative reading and generate multiple texts from a given text through personalizing and localizing it. In the initial stages, children are likely to reproduce the dialogues given in the text. By virtue of the feedback given to them they will be able to reflect on their own performance. This will eventually help them improve their performance in terms of delivering dialogues, showing facial expressions and actions and maintaining some of the theatrical conventions. The role-plays and dramas performed in the classrooms will provide ample opportunities for children to develop their communication skills. Features: Writing dialogues relevant to context. Describing the feelings and emotions of the main characters. Including the stage directions, moments and settings. Continuing the dramatic conflict Maintaining proper beginning, rising actions and ending. Suggesting costumes and props required. Using discourse markers (well, precisely etc.) Using well formed constructions (in the sentences) Uses appropriate cohesive devises Maintaining conventions of writing including spelling. 2.9.6
CHOREOGRAPHY
Choreography is a performance art and it makes use of some theatrical components. It is a discourse that can communicate effectively to its views. As a pedagogic tool it can be used to facilitate the development of communication skills. Like the drama it caters to the development of multiple intelligences. Choreographing a poem implies deeper understanding of its theme. The following process issued for choreographing the poem: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
Identifying the theme/themes of the poem (stanza-wise) Identifying instances from life that manifest the theme Identify the characters and their actions Deciding the location where the actions take place. Deciding the actions of the chorus to create the setting Sequencing the actions Setting music to the poem
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8) Singing the poem and synchronizing the movements and actions of the characters with the rhythm of the song. The theme can be interpreted in multiple ways and each interpretation will yield a different choreography of the poem. 2.9.7
Debate and discussion
Features: Organizing ideas as main points and sub points. Presentation of arguments in a sequential order Citation of suitable examples, quotations, evidences Maintaining a point of view Defending one’s own point of view and rebuts opponent’s point of view. Using discourse markers for agreeing, disagreeing, substantiating, enumerating, etc. Using polite expressions respecting other’s views Using logical and emotional appeals 2.9.8
INTERVIEW
Features: Proper introduction/ context. Relevant to the context/ theme. Maintaining proper beginning.. Using discourse markers. Using well formed construction. Appropriate language. Appropriate questions (no. of exchanges). Framing questions with relevance to the responses (appropriateness). Maintaining sequence in interaction. Appropriate closing/ ending the interview. 2.9.9
SPEECH
Features: Contextual relevance Organisation of ideas Use of argumentative/persuasive/interactive language Use of discourse markers Citation of examples, quotations etc Coherence Presenting a point of view Using well-formed constructions
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Using proper word form Maintaining conventions of writing
2.10
INDICATORS FOR ASSESSING THE ORAL DISCOURSES The above mentioned features of each discourse will become indicators for assessment.
For example let’s see for conversation 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)
Writing dialogues with five to ten exchanges Using proper sequence of exchanges Sustaining the conversation with social norms (being polite, reflecting relationships etc.) Using discourse markers (well, precisely etc.) Using short responses and tags wherever necessary Using dialogues apt to the context Using appropriate cohesive devises Using well-formed constructions Maintaining conventions of writing
2.11. Teaching Vocabulary As English has turned into a universal language, its presence and value in the world has expanded enormously in the past decades. And no one can deny the importance of vocabulary— not only for reading achievement but also for general social and economic success. But if language teachers teach as they taught earlier, then the required goals of learning English Language may not be achieved in the present global scenario. In the past, no productive, creative and constructive activity was given to the learners to develop the vocabulary skills. With the changing needs of the hour (time), it becomes necessary to use various techniques and methods of teaching vocabulary. A teacher must make use of such techniques while teaching vocabulary. We are living in the 21st century and it is the age of technological advancement. Thus, the modern technology can be effectively used in teaching vocabulary. The following are some of the techniques/strategies of teaching vocabulary: Word Ladder Write the target words on large cards and place them on the floor in a line to make the ladder. Split your students into 2 teams who line up at opposing ends of the ‘ladder 1 student from each team start (at the same time), before they can go forward one step on the ladder they must tell you the meaning of the word, or use it in a sentence. If they get it right, the step forward. They both keep going until they meet it in the middle. Then it’s rock, scissors, paper (or some variation of) to decide who can stay on the ladder. The winner continues, the loser has to
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go to the back of their teams line, and a new team member starts from the beginning of the ladder. The first team to reach the end of the ladder claims a point. Guess the Word Place students back to back on chairs. Give each one a list of words, student A gives a definition or sentence but does not say the target word. Student B has to guess what the word is. Once they get it right, Student B makes a new sentence with a different word. Vocabulary Puzzle Download a printable puzzle template. Take a marker and write the definition or a sentence across the whole puzzle. Then cut it up. Repeat for as many words as you want. Mix the pieces up. Students have to reassemble the puzzle and then match it to the correct vocabulary word. This is a great hand on activity for students who finish their class work quickly. Prefixes, Suffixes, and Root Words The majority of English words have been created through the combination of morphemic elements, that is, prefixes and suffixes with base words and word roots. If learners understand how this combinatonal process works, they possess one of the most powerful understanding necessary for vocabulary growth (Anderson and Freebody, 1981). This understanding of how meaningful elements combine is defined as morphological knowledge because it is based on an understanding of morphemes, the smallest units of meaning in a language. The most new words that students encounter in their reading are morphological derivatives of familiar words (Aronoff, 1994). In recent years research has suggested some promising guidelines for teaching the meanings of prefixes, suffixes, and word roots as well as for the ways in which knowledge of these meaningful word parts may be applied (Templeton, 2004). Word roots such as dict, spect, and struct are meaningful parts of words that remain after all prefixes and suffixes have been removed but that usually do not stand by themselves as words: prediction, inspection, contract etc. In the primary grades students begin to explore the effects of prefixes such as un-, re-, and dis- on base words. In the intermediate grades students continue to explore prefixes and an increasing number of suffixes and their effects on base words: govern (verb) + -ment = government (noun). Common Greek and Latin roots begin to be explored, along with the effects of prefixes and suffixes that attach to them (Templeton, 1989). These include, for example, chron (“time,” as in chronology), tele (“distant, far” as in television), and fract (“break,” as in fracture). A large proportion of the vocabulary of specific content areas is built on Greek and Latin elements. As this morphological knowledge develops, teachers can model how it may be applied to determining the meanings of unfamiliar words encountered in print. Role Play It is one of the most effective methods of teaching vocabulary. It can win the favour of the students as learners like dramatization and can easily learn through it. It is important in the classroom communication because it gives students an opportunity to practice communicatively
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in different social contexts and in different social roles. The language applied in this activity is varied according to the student’s status, attitudes, mood, and different situations. Use of Video Select a video segment that contains a series of actions or visual detail. Provide the learners with a list of target vocabulary words and ask them to construct a paragraph that incorporates asmany of the words as possible. This activity is best done after the learners have seen the video. As they learn how to use more vocabulary properly, you will see an improvement in their writing and speaking. A teacher can also show a short film without sound and ask pupils todiscuss what dialogue they would expect to hear. By showing a scene from a film without sound a teacher can ask pupils to use the facial expressions to determine emotion. Group Work Working in groups helps fostering learning independence, and especially in vocabulary work, learners can exchange knowledge, asking others to explain unknown items. We also hope that group work will be a motivating factor, as students talk about places they have been on holiday to, trying to remember details together, exchanging impressions and even good memories! Use of ICT This is the age of Information dominated by the Digital Technology. The Digital Technology has influenced all aspects of human life. Education is not an exception. Using information and computer technology (ICT) in education really motivates students. A teacher must take the advantage of this technology in teaching vocabulary in the classroom and out of the classroom. He must also inspire and guide students about, how they should use these resources. There are a lot of interesting vocabulary games including online word search, online crossword puzzle, picture-word matches, word scrambles, and 8 Letters in Search of a Word (a game that can draw you in unexpectedly as you race to create as many words as possible from eight letters within the time limit) etc. to build vocabulary skills in classrooms. The games are supplemented with themed word lists, test preparation items, and activities on prefixes and suffixes. These sites can be bookmarked for students’ independent practice and provide a basis for whole-group instruction. Playing word and vocabulary games is a valuable part of learning English. There are many fun educational websites dedicated to helping teachers and students to build reading, phonics, or English language skills of the students. They also offer Free Online Word Games which are specifically designed to build vocabulary skills and to motivate students to learn through fun practice in spelling, phonics, and vocabulary. By making connections between words and ideas, and between words and pictures, these resources build vocabulary skills. Connections between words make the process of building vocabulary skills faster and more efficiently.
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2.12
TEACHING OF GRAMMAR
Deductive Teaching The deductive method of teaching grammar is an approach that focuses on instruction before practice. A teacher gives students an in-depth explanation of a grammatical concept before they encounter the same grammatical concept in their own writing. After the lesson, students are expected to practice what they have just been shown in a mechanical way, through worksheets and exercises. This type of teaching, though common, has many people—including teachers—rethinking such methods, as more post-secondary level students are revealing sub-par literacy skills in adulthood. As one former teacher states, deductive teaching methods drive many students away from writing because of the tediousness of rote learning and teachercentered approaches. The advantages of deductive approach are: It gets straight to the point, and can therefore be time-saving. Many rules - especially rules of form - can be more simply and quickly explained than elicited from examples. This will allow more time for practice and application. It respects the intelligence and maturity of many - especially adult - students, and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in language acquisition. It confirms many students' expectations about classroom learning, particularly for those learners who have an analytical learning style. It allows the teacher to deal with language points as they come up, rather than having to anticipate them and prepare for them in advance. Some possible disadvantages: Starting the lesson with a grammar presentation may be off-putting for some students, especially younger ones. They may not have sufficient meta language (i.e. language used to talk about language such as grammar terminology Or they may not be able to understand the concepts involved. Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted, transmission-style classroom; teacher explanation is often at the expense of student involvement and interaction. Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation, such as demonstration. Such an approach encourages the belief that learning a language is simply a case of knowing the rules. Michael Swan, author of teacher’s and students' grammars, puts the following criteria: Truth: Rules should be true. While truthfulness may need to be compromised in the interests of clarity and simplicity, the "rule must bear some resemblance to the reality it is describing. Limitation: Rules should show clearly what the limits are on the use of a given form.
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For example, to say simply that we use will to talk about the future is of little use to the learner since it doesn't show how will is different from other ways of talking about the future (e.g., going to). Clarity: Rules should be clear. Lack of clarity is often caused by ambiguity or obscure terminology. For example: 'Use will for spontaneous decisions; use going to for premeditated decisions.' To which a student responded, 'All my decisions are premeditated'. Simplicity: Rules should be simple. Lack of simplicity is caused by overburdening the rule with sub-categories and sub-sub-categories in order to cover all possible instances and account for all possible exceptions. There is a limit to the amount of exceptions a learner can remember. Familiarity: An explanation should try to make use of concepts already familiar to the learner. Few learners have specialised knowledge of grammar, although they may well be familiar with some basic terminology med to describe the grammar of their own language (e,g, conditional, infinitive, gerund) Relevance: A rule should answer only those questions that the student needs answered, these questions may vary according to the mother tongue of the learner. The Inductive Method: The inductive route would seem, on the face of it, to be the way one’s first language is acquired: simply through exposure to a massive and meaningful amount of input, the regularities and patterns of the language become evident, independent of conscious study and explicit rule formulation. Induction, or learning through experience, is seen as the natural route to learning. These experimental methods or Instruction share a basic assumption that language data (or input) is best processed inductively without recourse to translation. They differ, however, in the position they take as to how best this input should be selected and organized. They also take different positions with regard to how and how often the teacher could intervene. Notice that in this approach to grammar teaching it was not thought necessary to draw the learners' attention to an explicit statement of the grammar rule. 1t was considered sufficient to rely on the learners' unconscious process to do the job.
Advantages of Inductive way of teaching Grammar: Rules learners discover for themselves are more likely to fit their existing mental structures than rules they have been presented with. This in turn will make the rules more meaningful, memorable and serviceavle. The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth which, again, ensures greater memorability. Students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than being simply passive receipients. Theya are therefore likely to be more attentive amd motivative. It is an approach which favours pattern-recognition and problem-solving abilities which suggests that it is particularly suitable for learners who like this kind of challenge.
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If the problem solving is done collaboratively, and in the target language, learners get the opportunity for extra language practice. Working things out for themselves prepares students for greater self reliance, and is therefore conducive to learner autonomy. 2.13
SUM UP
The child interacts with the teacher, with the material and with his/her classmate. During interaction there will be scope for developing listening and speaking skills through questioning, responding to a question, or conversation, dialoguing etc. Hence meaningful interaction is a source for acquisition of the target language. Hence the teacher has to provide context/ slot for generating interaction thereby involving the child in meaning making process. Through interaction oral discourses may be evolved. The teacher has to make use of the possible contexts of a reading text/ any picture for producing oral discourses in the classroom. The normal and simple oral discourse is a description. The other oral discourses includes conversations, story narration, poem/ song, short play, choreography, debate and discussion, speech compeering etc. all discourses have their own features. So the teacher has to evolve indicators for assessing the discourses. In order to equip the child use appropriate word, vocabulary is to be taught. There are many techniques and strategies of teaching vocabulary. Grammatical awareness is one of the academic standards targeted in English. Hence grammar is to be taught 2.14. Assignment: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)
\2.15
Do you think the oral skills like listening and speaking are inter- dependant? Substantiate. Discuss the sub skills of listening. Prepare your own tasks for developing your student’s speaking abilities. Discuss the authentic listening material that is feasible in your class. How do you ensure accuracy as well as fluency in speech among your students? Discuss the relevance of interaction in developing listening and speaking skills. Discuss the features of oral discourses in detail. How do you develop indicators for assessing oral discourses? Discuss the techniques and classroom strategies of teaching vocabulary. Distinguish between deductive and inductive approach of teaching grammar.
PROJECT WORK List out some words that are mis-spelt commonly. Take a language element. Teach it using inductive and deductive approaches. Record your observations.
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REFERENCES https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/119-2015-03-17-12.RocioSeguraAlonso2013 Anderson, A. & Lynch, T. (1988). Listening. New York: Oxford University Press. Berado, S.A. (2006). The Use of Authentic Materials in the Teaching of reading. The Reading Matrix, Volume6, Number2. Brown, G. & Yule, G.(1983). Teaching the spoken language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Harmer, J. (1991). The practice of English language teaching: new edition. London: Longman. How to teach grammar by Scott Thornbury. Handbook to teach English for upper primary classes by SCERT, AP Methods of teaching English (B. Ed), Telugu Academy. https://ijellh.com/innovative-methods-and-techniques-teaching-vocabulary. https://www.inklyo.com/methods-of-teaching-grammar/
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UNIT – 3 DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS- II
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DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS – II Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and Writing an exact man 3.1
– Francis Bacon
INTRODUCTION
We all know that English language use demands command over four skills i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening and reading are receptive skills as they help us understand the language and its structure. Speaking and writing help us to be better users of the language. So they are called productive skills. Reading is a receptive skill. Reading means understanding the content, or what the writer has said. We get a lot of information from written texts. Reading helps us improve our knowledge. Reading is an active process. Comprehension and speed should be balanced. Learners need to understand the content and also should be able to read with reasonable speed. So, if we understand the process of reading we can adopt the right strategy to read the text. Writing is a process and like all the other three skills writing has a purpose. Developing writing skills mean learning the mechanics of writing, structure of writing and also organization. Writing is a complex skill because many sub-skills are involved in it. In this chapter we discuss many aspects reading and writing skills. 3.2
UNIT OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit the student-teachers will be able to help students comprehend expository text structures. acquaint themselves with the signal or cue words authors utilize in writing each of the structures. Use different strategies in reading expository texts. Comprehend the concept of schema. Use different ways of reading. Practice different pre-reading and post-reading activities. Involve students in collaborative reading. Understand the relationship between language and society. Use multilingualism as a resource in the classroom. Understand the status of different Indian languages. Teach different level-specific written discourses. Do editing of different texts. Understand the role of the teacher as a facilitator. Assess different written texts.
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3.2.1
READING EXPOSITORY TEXTS
Expository text is non-fiction text meant to inform, analyze, explain or give additional detail about a topic. Some types of expository text include cause-and-effect writing, literary analysis, compare-and-contrast writing and reports. Expository text differs greatly from narrative text in tone, style, structure, and features. First, expository texts purvey a tone of authority, since the authors possess authentic and accurate information on the subjects they write about. Second, these texts follow a style that is distinctly different from that of a narrative text. Expository text uses clear, focused language and moves from facts that are general to specific and abstract to concrete. Another aspect of expository texts is that they utilize specific structures to present and explain information. And, it has long been known that the ability to recognize text structure enhances the student's ability to comprehend and recall the information read. The five most common structures utilized in informational text are cause-effect, comparison-contrast, definition-example, problem-solution, and proposition supporter sequential listing. To help students recognize and identify these structures, teachers can acquaint them with the signal or cue words authors use in writing each of the structures (See below). In addition, Doug Buehl (2001) has created a series of questions to help students in identifying each specific structure. The following table tells us the common set of words and phrases used in expository texts. Text Structure Signal Words CauseEffect
ComparisonContrast
DefinitionExample
ProblemSolution
PropositionSupport
because
however
for example
because
for example
consequently
but
for instance
since
therefore
If so, then
on the other hand
specifically
consequently
first, second, third
since
instead of
in addition
so that
before
therefore
as well as
described as
nevertheless
after
so that
similar to
to illustrate
a solution
then
thus
different from
another
however
finally
as a result
compared to
first, second, third
therefore
in conclusion
not only, but
in addition as result
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1) a table of contents 2) a preface 3) chapter introductions 4) chapter headings and subheadings 5) marginal notes or gloss 6) chapter summaries 7) maps, charts, graphs, and illustrations 8) an index 9) a glossary 10) Content overview As noted above, content reading instruction is most effective when teachers scaffold their students' learning (Biancarosa & Snow, 2004). While presenting a structural overview as a scaffolding strategy is a good place to begin, Garber-Miller (2007). It is also beneficial to give students a content overview so they can ponder the many concepts and questions they will encounter throughout the year. Teachers must help them understand how the ideas in the textbook are interrelated. Teachers should utilize text previews in order to accomplish this. 3.2.2
STRATEGIES FOR READING EXPOSITORY TEXTS
Tompkins (1998) suggested the following three steps to teach expository text structures: Introduce an organizational pattern-The teacher introduces the signal words and phrases that identify each text structure and gives students a graphic organizer for each pattern. Give students opportunities to work on the text-The teacher provides the students with chances to analyze the text structures in informational books, not stories. At this stage, students learn the signal words and phrases in the text that identify each text pattern. They also may use graphic organizers to illustrate these patterns. Invite students to write paragraphs using each text structure pattern-The students' first writing activity should be a whole-class activity, followed by small-group, partner, and independent writing activities. This involves selecting a topic and using a graphic organizer to plan the paragraphs. Finally, the students write a rough draft using signal words and phrases for the text structure, revise, and edit the paragraph to produce the final product. The teacher can then repeat these steps for each of the five text structures to ensure comprehensive text structure coverage. Having applied the procedure recommended by Tompkins (1998), we would like to share our own experience in teaching expository text structure and shed more light on the practical aspects of teaching text structure in reading classes. The first and most important thing for you as a teacher is to be well informed about different text structures for expository texts, the signal words and phrases for each text structure, and the appropriate graphic organizer specific to each text structure.
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Before you prepare any instructional plan to start training students and embark on reading activities, you must model all the procedures. Meanwhile, the students watch you focusing on the steps you have mentioned, from recognizing the signal words and phrases to applying the graphic organizers to each text. After you have practiced for the first few sessions and students have collected enough background on what they are going to do, it is time to use the following recommended procedure: Introduce the text structures in order, starting with description and finishing with compare/ contrast. This order is followed in most textbook readings. Introduce and work on a single text structure in each lesson. Do not combine them. Work on one text structure for three or four sessions, then proceed to the next one. Prepare short passages (about six to eight lines) for the text structure you are going to work on in that session. As the texts are short, you can work on at least four texts according to the time allocated for each session. Try to highlight and emphasize the signal words and phrases in each text and elaborate on a series of signal words for each text structure (see Figure 1). Tell students that authors of informational texts use specific signal words and phrases for each rhetorical structure. After students are familiar with signal words and phrases, ask them to find these clues in structure of each text through signal words and phrases. Then, invite them to write some short paragraphs and use some of the signal words and phrases appropriate to each text structure. Working with graphic organizers is the next step after teaching signal words and phrases. For the first few sessions of working with graphic organizers, prepare for your students a completed graphic organizer before they start working on the text. This will help them create a better image of the hierarchy of ideas and their interrelationships discussed in the passage. Graphic organizers help students list major ideas under the main idea of the text and put the supporting details under the related major idea. Having a graphic representation of the text's ideas helps readers comprehend and retain the content. Once students are comfortable with different kinds of graphic organizers, you can give them an incomplete graphic organizer after they have finished reading the passage. Let them complete it on their own. At this stage, the students would be able to work on a blank graphic organizer independently, elicit the ideas from the text, and demonstrate the hierarchy of the ideas in a graphic organizer. These activities may vary from partially blank graphic organizers to totally blank schematic representations. Variables like the text length and text difficulty will determine how much of the text may appear in this schematic diagram.
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Here are some sample graphic organizers and signal words which the students can use for note taking while reading an expository text.
As the students progress to the final stage, they are able to use the signal words and phrases as a clue to recognize the rhetorical structure of the text and create the appropriate graphic organizer for each text structure. They are capable of identifying the main idea, other major ideas, and supporting details of the text and put them in the graphic organizer to illustrate the subordination of the details to the main and major ideas. Reading expository texts is critical for growth in reading ability and most urgent to rank normal achievers; the ability to read, comprehend, and analyze expository texts (i.e., identifying main idea, major ideas, and supporting details) could be good criteria to rank students' academic reading achievement. One way to measure and rank students' reading achievement of the expository texts is to teach reading through text structures. This will raise text structure awareness and is assumed to lead to a permanent improvement in reading skill.
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3.2.3
ACTIVATING SCHEMA
Simply put, schema theory states that all knowledge is organized into units. Within these units of knowledge, or schemata, is stored information. A schema, then, is a generalized description or a conceptual system for understanding knowledge-how knowledge is represented and how it is used. Readers rely on their prior knowledge and world experience when trying to comprehend a text. It is this organized knowledge that is accessed during reading that is referred to as schema (plural schemata). Readers make use of their schema when they can relate what they already know about a topic to the facts and ideas appearing in a text. The richer the schema is for a given topic the better a reader will understand the topic. Schema theorists have advanced our understanding of reading comprehension by describing how prior knowledge can enhance a reader's interaction with the text. Accordingly, comprehension occurs when a reader is able to use prior knowledge and experience to interpret an author's message (Bransford, 1985; Norris & Phillips, 1987). Educators and researchers have suggested numerous instructional strategies to help students activate and use prior knowledge to aid comprehension. Yet, schema theory does not explain how readers modify and create new schema when presented with novel information in texts. Because texts are never completely explicit, the reader must rely on preexisting schemata to provide plausible interpretations. Yet, there is much evidence that good and poor readers do not always use schemata appropriately or are unaware of whether the information they are reading is consistent with their existing knowledge. Also, there is evidence that students who do not spontaneously use schemata as they read will engage them if given explicit instructions prior to reading (e.g., Bransford, 1979). Pre-reading strategies have been developed to help students relate new information appearing in written discourse to their existing knowledge. The design of many of these preorganizers reflects Ausubel's (1959) definition of readiness and the purpose of their use is to create a mind set prior to reading. These pre-organizers have included advance organizers (Ausubel, 1960), structured overviews or graphic organizers (Alvermann, 1981), previews (Graves, et al., 1983), concept maps (Novak & Gowin, 1984), and thematic organizers (Alvarez, 1980, 1983; Alvarez & Risko, 1989; Risko & Alvarez, 1986). 3.2.4
BUILDING SCHEMATA
Learning novel concepts may require the reader to connect new information to a congruent mental model. Mental models represent an individual's construal of existing knowledge and/or new information in the domain even though this information may be fragmentary, inaccurate, or inconsistent (Gentner & Gentner, 1983). A person's mental model is a representation of a particular belief based on existing knowledge of a physical system or a semantic representation depicted in a text. For example, a person may hold a belief that balls are round, inflatable and are made to bounce. However, this person may encounter a football (an ellipsoid) that is kicked or thrown, or ball bearings that are solid, or a bowling ball that is solid
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and has holes drilled into it for the purpose of rolling rather than bouncing. This new knowledge is integrated into a new, more complex, mental structure about the shape, substance, form, and function of balls. As Bransford (1985) points out, schema activation and schema construction are two different problems. While it is possible to activate existing schemata with a given topic, it does not necessarily follow that a learner can use this activated knowledge to develop new knowledge and skills. Problem solving lessons and activities can provide learners with situations that aid in schema construction which includes critical thinking. Critical thinking theory enables a reader to analyze an ambiguous text. When versed in this process, a reader can either weigh alternative interpretations, dismiss others, make a decision to evaluate multiple possibilities, or accept the information as being reasonable. This process helps students to modify or extend their mental model, or existing knowledge base, for target concepts. Several teacher-directed and self-initiated activities can be used to promote schema construction and application of knowledge to novel situations. Four such strategies that are designed to foster shared meaning between and among teachers and peers are: cases, interactive videodiscs, hierarchical concept maps, and Vee diagrams. Cases that present learners with single and varied contexts across disciplines provide learners with scenarios that can be discussed and analyzed from multiple perspectives (e.g., see Christensen, 1987; Spiro, et al., 1987). These cases can include written documents, recorded (musical as well as narrative) interludes, paintings, artifacts, video portrayals, and other pertinent substances and materials. Another teacher-directed strategy is the use of interactive videodiscs. Bransford and his colleagues are developing episodes, revolving around problem-oriented learning environments, that can be computer-accessed by learners to invite critical thinking and schema construction (see Bransford, et al., 1989; Bransford, et al., in press). Hierarchical concept maps and Vee diagrams are two methods that students can initiate on their own for schema construction and application. Hierarchical concept maps (Novak & Gowin, 1984) are designed to help the reader clarify ambiguities of a text while simultaneously revealing any misconceptions that result from a reading. More importantly they provide the learner with a tool from which to initiate ideas that can be shared by visual inspection with someone else. The Vee diagram (Gowin, 1981/1987) is a method by which a learner can learn about the structure of knowledge and knowledge-making within a given discipline and use this knowledge in novel contexts. Students can be taught to incorporate new information into their existing world knowledge. This can be accomplished through teacher guided instruction and self-initiated strategies that includes methods and meaningful materials that induce critical thinking with conceptual problems. In order for schema construction to occur, a framework needs to be provided that helps readers to elaborate upon new facts and ideas and to clarify their significance or relevance. Students need to learn more about themselves as learners. Notable in this learning context is the relationship between facts and ideas learned in formal school settings and those encountered in everyday learning environments. Perhaps within this inquiry we will be led to
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discover the ways individuals choose to relate new information to existing schemata and how this new information influences their future knowledge and decision-making. 3.2.5
READING TO LEARN
In today’s world, reading is basic to everyday life. As children we learn to read, and as adults, we read to learn. We read to learn about the news, to learn about rules, and to learn about how to do things. We also use reading to learn English. If we want to learn English more quickly, lots of reading is important. The more we read, the more input our brain gets about how the language works. When we read in English, we can improve our vocabulary, our grammar, and our writing skills at the same time. Reading is the best way to improve our vocabulary. The context of articles, stories, and conversations helps us figure out and understand the meaning of English words in the text that are new. Reading also provides repetition of vocabulary words we have already learned to help us remember them. We say a picture is worth a thousand words. Pictures are important to support comprehension for students who are just beginning to learn English. In the primary classes’ reading activities, the sentences are short with some key vocabulary. The picture helps students with comprehension and to learn English words that might be new. A good learning strategy is to listen to the speaker/teacher several times as we read along with the text. In secondary level text books, the readings have longer and more complex sentences. We’ll find a variety of topics about the challenges and opportunities in our society, including education, workplace and community issues, health and safety and many more. Thus through reading we learn not only language, but many more worldly things also. 3.2.6
ACQUISITION OF REGISTERS
Language register is the level of formality with which we speak. There are five language registers or styles. Each level has an appropriate use that is determined by differing situations. It would certainly be inappropriate to use language and vocabulary reserve for a conversation between friends in a park, when speaking in the classroom. Thus the appropriate language register depends upon the audience (who), the topic (what), purpose (why) and location (where). We must control the use of language registers in order to enjoy success in every aspect and situation we encounter. 1)
Static Register
This style of communication RARELY or NEVER changes. It is “frozen” in time and content. e.g. the Pledge in daily assembly, the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble to the Constitu-tion, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic reference, laws etc.
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2)
Formal Register
This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature. This use of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually interpersonal and formal. A common format for this register are speeches. e.g. sermons, rhetorical statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements etc. 3)
Consultative Register
This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted structure of communications. It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of this speech. It is professional discourse. e.g. when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer & client, lawyer & judge, teacher & student, counselor & client etc. 4)
Casual Register
This is informal language used by peers and friends. Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are normal. This is “group” language. One must be member to engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs, and letters to friends. 5)
Intimate Register
This style of communication is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people. e.g. husband & wife, boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent & children. One can usually move from one language register to an adjacent one without encountering repercussions. However, skipping one or more levels is usually considered inappropriate and even offensive.
3.3
READING ACTIVITY / PROCESS
Reading activity involves different ways and processes. 3.3.1
WAYS OF READING
Reading is a multifaceted process involving word recognition, comprehension, fluency, and motivation. Reading involves the following processes. We should identify the words in print. This process is called word recognition. Later we should construct an understanding from these printed words. This process is called comprehension. Later we should coordinate identifying words and making meaning so that reading is automatic and accurate. This is called achieving fluency.
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Sometimes you can make meaning from print without being able to identify all the words. Remember the last time you got a note in messy handwriting? You may have understood it, even though you couldn't decipher all the scribbles. In classroom transaction the students are walked through the reading of texts in certain stages of reading. Let’s know more about these stages. 3.3.2
PRE-READING 1) The teacher interacts with the learners in an informal way in order to instill in them a sort of communication expectancy so that they are psychologically tuned to involve in the activities that follow. This can be done based on something (say a photograph, a visual clipping, a news report, etc.) that will work as a trigger for sensitizing the learners on the theme around which the entire classroom activities are woven. The facilitator can ask a few analytical questions that will elicit individual perceptions on the trigger. 2) The facilitator initiates discussion basing on the face sheet or trigger that will further sensitize the learners on the theme. 3) This is followed by a few more analytical questions eliciting free responses of the learners. These questions will help the learners make intelligent predictions on what they are going to read.
3.3.3
INDIVIDUAL READING
During the pre-reading session, children have already made some intelligent predictions on the content of the passage. They will be making an earnest attempt to check whether their prediction is borne out true. Reading in this sense is need-based and is an intrinsically motivated activity. Of course they will be confronted with a few barriers - barriers caused by the unfamiliar words or structural complexities. 3.2.4
COLLABORATIVE READING
Children sit in groups and share within the group their reading experience in terms of things like the following: What they understood from the passage which they have read; What they did not understand and The parts that they liked most in the passage. This is followed by sharing of ideas with other groups with the facilitator’s mediation. Sometimes, a glossary or dictionary will be made use of. When collaborative reading is over, the facilitator asks a few questions related to the passage. These are not meant for checking comprehension. Instead, they are questions of an analytical nature such as reflective questions,
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inferential questions, and so on. These questions help the learners assimilate the text by virtue of personalizing and localizing it. The facilitator can read the passage aloud which will help the learners make better sense of the reading passage with proper voice modulation. Moreover, the teacher’s reading will serve as a listening input for the learners in terms of some of the articulatory features. (eg. stress, pause, etc.) A mind mapping activity may be carried out as a tool for tracking the thinking process of the learners. They can describe the mind maps they have developed. 3.3.5
POST-READING
The major activity of the post-reading session is construction of a discourse by the learners. By virtue of the inputs they have received through listening and reading, they are in a position to take up a task which demands them to construct a specific discourse (conversation, description, story, etc.). Each discourse calls for a specific process without which the learners will not be able to construct it. The micro-processes of discourse construction are: interaction /brainstorming to sensitize the learners towards the features / ideas of a discourse; individual construction presentation by a few individuals constructive feedback by the facilitator and other learners sharing in groups for refinement presentation by groups presentation of the facilitator’s version of the targeted discourse and sensitizing the learners n the the discourse features of the ideal version Editing The discourses constructed by the learners (whether individually or in groups) may have certain errors in them. These errors may be related to syntax or morphology or cutting across both. In addition to these, there may be punctuation or spelling errors. These are to be rectified for which there is a meticulous process of editing. This is not a slot for teaching grammar. The learners are sensitized on these errors by evoking their intuitive sense of well-formedness which works as a guiding indicator. Note that this sense is to be acquired non-consciously and not by learning grammatical facts consciously. After the process of editing, children will refine their individual products with the help of the inputs they received and the ideal version of the discours. Finally, the teachers edits the children’s version and gives a constructive feedback. The post reading activities also include activities that make use of various study skills and those related to undertaking projects.
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3.4
BEYOND THE TEXT-BOOK
The extensive or free voluntary reading in a second and foreign language teaching has an important role in improving one’s reading skill. This method focuses on teaching readers rather than on teaching texts (Haas and Flower 1988, 169). Since we learn to read by actually reading, the aim of these methods is to build learners' reading skill by encouraging them to read more. This is a supplement to intensive reading methods, in which the learners work with activities related to set texts. Textbooks are a good example of intensive reading, providing short texts and supplementary activities which allow learners to practice vocabulary and grammatical structures, develop various language skills and check their reading comprehension. Thus, intensive reading tends to focus on details and to serve functions that reach far beyond the apparent purpose of reading. Extensive reading While intensive reading is important, learners will not become fluent and confident readers if this is the extent of their reading practice. This is where extensive reading comes in. To become good readers, learners need to read as much as possible, and they need to read books that interest them and are at their own level of difficulty. According to Susser and Robb (1990), the key features of this method are "reading (a) of large quantities of material or long texts; (b) for global or general understanding; (c) with the intention of obtaining pleasure from the text. Further, because (d) reading is individualized, with students choosing the book they want to read, (e) the books are not discussed in class." (3). Moreover, the immediate aims of this method tend to be directly related to reading: increased fluency and speed. This is not to say that comprehension is not important, since research indicates that reading speed and comprehension are linked; the overall message may be lost if the rate of processing information is too slow (Brown and Hirst, 1983). Thus, comprehension as well as fluency benefit from extensive reading practice. 3.5
DIVERSE FORMS OF TEXTS AS MATERIALS FOR LANGUAGE
We use different forms of reading materials both inside and outside the class to encourage them to read more and more and acquire proficiency in English language. Let’s discuss some of the reading materials other than text-books. 1) Literature Literature includes poetry, fiction, creative non-fiction, and drama. The primary goal of literature is to entertain the readers. The readers acquire the language skills when they go through some literary texts. Literary texts have certain distinguishing features. They are: Artistic use of language Plot = action Characters
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Works of fiction and drama usually follow a similar plot structure, called a dramatic arc. “Exposition” provides setting and background information. “Rising action” is where the events of the story start to get complicated. The “climax” is where the drama reaches its most dramatic moment. “Falling action” then shows the fallout from the climax, and “resolution” (also known as a denoument) is the closing action where the issues of the plot are fully resolved. Examples: the Harry Potter series of books, by J. K. Rowling the plays and sonnets by William Shakespeare 2) Journalism Another form of additional reading materials is Journalism. Journalism is news, usually focused on current events. The primary goal of reading news in newspapers or elsewhere is to get information. Generally newspapers give us only facts, not opinions. Journalism relies on research. They refer to sources by name, but don’t have separate citations at the end of the piece. Examples articles from The Hindu stories from the Deccan Chronicle. 3) Academic Journals An academic or scholarly journal is a peer-reviewed periodical that focuses on a narrow field of study. Academic journals serve as forums for the introduction and presentation for scrutiny of new research, and the critique of existing research. The primary goal of academic journals is to distribute or share new ideas. Academic journal articles are generally written by experts in a particular field. They assume that readers have a depth of knowledge about the subject matter, as well. Ex:
Oxford Academic Journal ELTAI Journal.
We see children going through many books like Twinkle, Pokeman, Little Krishna, Chota Bheem and many cartoon stories. They enjoy reading these materials when compared to their regular classroom text-books.
3.6
RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY
Language performs various functions in the society and the society does the same way. If one will not exist, the other one will be affected. Language is the primary tool for communication purposes, for establishing peace and order in our society, for showing authority and power, and for attaining goals and objectives. But, it can also destruct the society if it will
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use inappropriately. It must follow the conformity governing the society to avoid conflicts and to meet the boundary of individual differences. Society however controls our language by giving us preferences as what are acceptable and not, because each one of us has our own perception or point of view. A group of people may accept our language, but for others, it could be kind of offence or insult. We must know how, when and where to say it and for what purpose. Social changes produce changes in language. This affects values in ways that have not been accurately understood. Language incorporates social values. However, social values are only the same as linguistic values when the society is a stable and unchanging one. Once society starts changing, then language change produces special effects. Language cannot survive in the absence of the society. Society cannot exist without using a language. 3.7
IDENTITY, POWER AND DISCRIMINATION
Human society is divided into some language groups. In India the reorganization of states had taken place based on the identity of social groups using a particular language. Those places with people who use Telugu for their social communications were identified as Telugu State – Andhra Pradesh. The places where Tamil is predominantly used were declared as Tamilnadu. At the same time we should remember that in our society using English language has its own identity. People who are proficient in using English language are looked upon by the other members of the society as cultured and civilized people. They are forming into an intellectual circle. Many opportunities are available for those who can speak and write well in English. They can cross the barriers created by the local vernacular languages and can become citizens of the world. They can explore and gain knowledge using many resources than the vernacular language users. When a group of people gain more knowledge than others, it will definitely lead them to the avenues of power and those who could not gain power will be discriminated. If we observe the people who are at the helm of any domain i.e. politics, entrepreneurship, administration, judiciary, foreign officers etc. we find one thing common in them. Most of them are proficient in using English language. Thus English language not only empowers the people who use it but also helps to establishment of their unique identity. It takes them to the corridors of power and these things naturally lead to discrimination. 3.8
NATURE OF MULTILINGUALISM The aim of English teaching is the creation of multilingual that can enrich all our languages; this has been an abiding national vision.
Language is a complex phenomenon. It is not just a means of communication. Language is thought also. Language and thought are inseparable. India is a land of many languages. Even
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in our state Andhra Pradesh many languages are spoken. While teaching the target language English, the teacher must understand the multilingual scenario and consider it an advantage rather than a handicap. He / She must respect the various languages like Telugu, Urdu, Marathi, and Oriya spoken by the children and provide space for each linguistic community in the English classroom. Instead of teaching English Grammar mechanically and boringly, the English teacher may think of comparing and contrasting the structure of English Language with those of the different languages spoken by the children. Freedom should be given to the learners to use the mother tongue at every stage. They are expected to say a few lines about the pictures in the language they like. When they come across English expressions (words), they can say what they are called in Telugu or any other language they can freely express. There can be intermittent shift from L1 to English and vice versa. Multilingualism promotes scholastic achievement and cognitive growth and social tolerance; multilingualism should be taken as an advantage rather than a handicap in teaching the target language, English. Languages flourish in one another’s company and they die if they are frozen in textbooks, dictionaries and grammar books. Hence the teacher should make use of the strategies of translation, paraphrase, code mixing and code switching very effectively and consider multilingualism a great resource for him / her in the teaching the target language. It is really an interesting and challenging task for the teacher to amalgamate the multiplicity of languages and cultural practices and ethos [that the children bring to class and use it as a great resource to foster social tolerance, linguistic enhancement besides teaching the target language. He / she should explore the possibility of using multilingualism as a great resource through cooperative and collaborative reading]. Then every child belonging to a different linguistic community and speaking a different language can voice it and feels that he / she is given proper space in the classroom. 3.9
HIERARCHICAL STATUS OF INDIAN LANGUAGES AND ITS IMPACT ON CLASSROOM DYNAMICS
The languages of the Indian subcontinent are divided into various language families, of which the Indo-Iranian and the Dravidian languages are the most widely spoken. There are also many languages belonging to unrelated language families such as Sino-Tibetan, spoken by smaller groups. Indo-Aryan languages Sanskrit Pali Hindi Urdu
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Dravidian languages Tamil Telugu Kannada Malayalam The Indian constitution, in 1950, declared Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union. English was also recognized as a language for official purposes. The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution recognizes the following 22 languages:- (1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22) Dogri. Due to the LPG factor, Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization, now we can see people moving across the country for employment, trade and other purposes. So, we can presume that each class is a multilingual class. Multilingualism is already a reality and it will grow further. In near future every class will have students speaking many languages. We should see it as a resource rather than a predicament. Teachers should design activities that suit the learners with different language back-grounds. The mother tongue influence on English language pronunciation is a reality and it should be accepted. The teachers should allow the voices of all the students in the classroom. While grouping children for engaging them in different classroom activities, field based projects and for collaborative reading teachers should see that each group comprises of students from different language/dialectical background. It is very much essential that the students should have good knowledge in their mother tongue. The knowledge gained in mother tongue helps them learn English language quickly by following code-mixing and codeswitching methods. It is always better if the teacher possesses some knowledge of different language back-grounds of the students of an English classroom. 3.10
HELPING CHILDREN TO BECOME GOOD READERS
There are certain strategies which help children become good readers. Teachers can use a cloze passage, i.e. passage where words at regular intervals are erased and the students have to supply the correct word. We can use jumbled reading as a tool to develop reading skills. Sentences of text are jumbled up and learners are asked to organize the sentences in proper order with the help of discourse markers like however, although, furthermore, namely and so on. A variation could be to jumble up sentences of two stories and ask the learners to separate the two stories. Skills of reading do not involve only reading texts. Sometimes maps, graphs, figures are also read and understood. Railway time-table is not in form of a running text. It is in the form of a table. Apart from this the graphic conventions like lay out, punctuation and indentations need to be understood in order to comprehend the information. Of course these skills are not so much in use at the primary level of learning but are useful at a later level of learning.
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3.11
WHAT IS WRITING?
We have read earlier that writing is a productive skill. Writing is an exacting activity. It requires accuracy in language usage. Correctness in grammatical usage certainly goes a long way in making a piece of writing better. At present computers help us to write with accuracy as they check the spelling and grammatical errors automatically. Writing is the expression of ideas. If we did not have something to say, we could not be able to write anything at all. All types of writing is expression of ideas. Without ideas, writing would not have any purpose or meaning. Expression is important for communication. Many people think that writing is a difficult skill among the four language skills. It requires head and hand coordination. Generally it is a personal and a lonely experience. In our regular classes we find many students who are good at writing and getting good grades in written examinations. They can express their ideas in writing but when we ask them to speak they are unable to speak even for three full minutes on any given topic. 3.12
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READING AND WRITING
Researchers found that reading affects writing and writing affects reading. According to recommendations from the major English Language professional organizations, reading instruction is most effective when intertwined with writing instruction and vice versa. Research has found that when children read extensively they become better writers. Reading a variety of genres helps children learn text structures and language that they can then transfer to their own writing. In addition, reading provides young people with prior knowledge that they can use in their stories. One of the primary reasons that we read is to learn. Especially while we are still in school, a major portion of what we know comes from the texts we read. Since writing is the act of transmitting knowledge in print, we must have information to share before we can write it. Therefore reading plays a major role in writing. At the same time practice in writing helps children build their reading skills. This is especially true for younger children who are working to develop phonemic awareness and phonics skills. Phonemic awareness (the understanding that words are developed from sound “chunks”) develops as children read and write new words. Similarly, phonics skills or the ability to link sounds together to construct words are reinforced when children read and write the same words. For older children practice in the process of writing their own texts helps them analyze the pieces that they read. They can apply their knowledge about the ways that they chose to use particular language, text structure or content to better understand a professional author’s construction of his or her texts. In order to help children develop these two essential skills, parents and teachers need to apply this knowledge when working with them. 3.13
DEVELOPING WRITTEN DISCOURSES
We can simply say that discourse means ‘a meaningful interaction in spoken or written form’. At high school level certain discourses were identified for practice. They are
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1) Conversations 2) Descriptions 3) Rhymes/songs/poems 4) Narrative/story 5) Diary 6) Letter 7) Message/email/SMS 8) Notice/poster/invitation/ads 9) Slogans/placards 10) Skit/drama/play 11) Compeering 12) Choreography Let’s discuss the features of some of the written discourses. 3.13.1
DESCRIPTION
There are different kinds of descriptions. Title is a common feature of the description. Let’s have a look into some descriptions. a) Description of a person b) Description of a place c) Description of an object/animal d) Description of an event e) Description of a process a) Description of a person In description of a person we describe the details such as who and what the person is, the physical appearance, character, societal status, personal impressions, achievements, style of behavior, facial complexion etc. Physical appearance: When describing physical appearance you should give details in the following order: A. height / build / age B. facial features C. hair D. clothes Height / build /age: Height of people:short, medium height,tall, small (children) Build of people: thin, slim, well-built (muscular), plump, overweight, crooked etc. Age of people: young(child, teenager), middle – aged, old
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Facial features: Face: round, oval, square etc. Eyes: slanting, almond – shaped Nose: crooked, upturned, and curved Lips: thin, full, pink Complexion: tanned,pale, wrinkled, and freckled, Types of faces: round, oval, diamond and square. Hair: Short curly brown hair or straight long blond hair Haircuts and styles: parting, in a ponytail, spikey, bobbed Clothes & special features: elegant, formal, casual Character (personality):While describing character and behaviour we may use: reserved, verbose, aggressive, sensitive, rude, fresh, elegant, cool, sarcastic etc. Here is an example for description of a person. CHANDRA KUMAR Chandra Kumar is a tall slim man. He has got an oval face, black eyes and an upturned nose. He wears a bowler hat under that his long curly hair parted slightly to the left. He has got blue eyes with a lovely look in them. He wears always smile on his face. I’ve never seen him angry. In everyday life, he is often casually dressed in a pair of trousers and T-shirt. He is aggressive sometimes but looks very cool many times. You will be happy with him while speaking to him. He is a well-mannered person.
b) Description of a place While describing a place concentrate on the images, sensory perceptions, location etc. We can use expressions like the following while describing a place. This city is well known for … The views are … It’s got… The atmosphere is … You can see… You shouldn’t miss … It’s located in …
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It’s close to… It’s far away from … What I don’t like about it is … The good thing about this place is … A popular tourist attraction is … It’s popular with tourists because… Here is an example MY HOUSE I stood on the grass verge by the side of the road and looked over the garden wall at the old house. It hadn’t changed much. The old house built with solid blocks of granite wasn’t altered at all. But there was a new outhouse, and there were fewer trees. I was glad to see that the jackfruit tree still stood at the side of the building casting its shade on the wall. I remembered my grandmother saying: “A blessing rests on the house where the shadow of a tree falls. And so the present owners must also be receiving the tree’s blessings. At the spot where I stood there had once been a turnstile, and as a boy I would wing on it, going round and round until I was quite dizzy. Now the turnstile had gone, the opening walled up. Tall hollyhocks grew on the other side of the wall.
c) Description of an object/animal In description of an object we describe where it is, how it looks like (shape, size, colour), what it is used for etc. Example for describing a thing. MY BUREAU It’s a beautiful bureau having four little lion hind legs to bear the burden, painted grey and silver combination. The entire bureau is made up of the original teak wood which was taken from the local forest. It brings beauty to my hall in the centre occupying exactly 5x5 square shaped area, on the top with some beautiful designs drawn. Between the top and the legs some designed shelves, some colourful sketches here and there. Everyone who witnesses my bureau asks for the information where and how I bring it to home.
d) Description of an event Use details of that event such as what the event is, where it is taking place, the persons or things involved, the order of events to describe an event. (Helping words: first, then, next, after that, finally and time indicators) Example for describing an event
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Observing Children’s Day It’s really enthusiastic to observe the Children’s Day Celebrations in the school on 14th of November of every year. It’s also called the Self Governance Day in schools as children themselves run the school acting as teachers and other staff of the school. First the children who participate as teachers and other officers come to school in colours according to their positions. Then the real teachers just observe the event that is going on and supports the children whenever necessary. After that there will be a meeting, recollecting the greatness of the first Prime Minister of India, with songs, speeches and other cultural activities in the presence of the first citizen of the village and the villages. Finally, after the distribution of sweets, the event ends with National Anthem.
e) Description of process While describing a process the sequence of the process is important and the details to be involved. (Helping words: first, then, next, after that, finally) Example for describing a process Banana milk shake If you love to make your loved ones to taste the Banana milk shake prepared by you, it’s simple, just follow the process. First take the banana peel and slice them into a bowl. Then pour the slices into the mixer grinder jar. Next add some ice and yogurt to the slices in the jar. After that run the juicer for some time until it gets smoother. Finally pour it into a glass and then add some tiny pieces of different dry fruits. That’s all the Banana milk shake is ready.
3.13.2
NARRATIVE/STORY
Narrative is the most familiar and often the first choice of writers. It gives us the basis of most of our writing. Much writing carries a narrative shape. Moreover, we are all story-tellers. Every anecdote, every joke, every piece of gossip, memory of every happening – all make a story. Our thoughts, hopes and day-dreams are stories. Thus, a lot of thinking has a narrative structure. We give all these a chronological order making connections, and showing cause and effect. Not only organizing in logical order we also season the ideas with emotional and psychological feelings, create a sensational effect, make a strong impact and raise a laugh. Narratives are of many types like picture stories, fairy tales and biographies, autobiographies, historical accounts etc. However it is simple if we begin by telling an incident or an anecdote. Example for a narrative:
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It was 5.30 p.m in the evening. All the children were running across and playing in the ground. I was happily watching them. Suddenly, I saw a snake, at a distance. It raised its hood and was looking around. Perhaps, it wanted to reach the other side of the ground. I alerted the gardener nearby who was watering the plants. He acted immediately. He whistled three times and signed the students to clear the ground silently. The students followed the instruction of the gardener. Like a disciplined child the snake crawled across the ground and went into the bushes on the other side. I sighed in relief. 3.13.3
INTERVIEW
Interview is a meeting in which someone asks you questions to see if you are suitable for a job or a course or asks questions about yourself for a newspaper article, television show etc. Here is an example for Interview Interview for a Job Selection Rohan: Good morning Sir. Officer: Good morning. Please sit down, Mr. Rohan. Well! I am Swadesh the Managing Director. Rohan: So glad to meet you Sir. Officer: Good to meet you too. Your CV is very impressive. You have done well in your academics and have got through with flying colours! Rohan: Thank you very much Sir. Officer: Well! Bright students like you generally proceed to foreign universities for higher studies. How come you didn't opt for it? Rohan: First of all, my parents couldn't afford it. Secondly, I didn’t want to as I believe Indian institutions offer quality education and it depends on the students to make the best use of it. Officer: Well! You have done B.E. in Computer Engineering and have proceeded to do MBA and specialised in marketing instead of doing Masters in the same under graduation subject. Is there any particular reason for it? Rohan: Well! I felt a technical degree along with Master in marketing would help me move upwards in my career. Officer: That is good thinking! Certainly that's why you are here for this interview. We are looking for fresher with such an educational combination to take on as trainees.
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Rohan: Thank you very much Sir. Well! May I know how long the training will be? Officer: Training will be for six months. Initially it will be held in Mumbai. Later, trainees will be shifted to the regional offices for on-the-job training for another six months. Afterwards they will be placed in anyone of the regional offices. Rohan: Is there any exam to be passed at the end of the training sir? Officer: No. No exam as such. But you will be assessed for your performance through the entire training period. Rohan: Sir, when will I get to know the result of this interview? Officer: Say, within two weeks. You see, we have scheduled a number of interviews for this week. You have a bright chance Mr. Rohan. Best of luck! Rohan: Thank you very much Sir. You're very kind. Officer: You're welcome! 3.13.4
ESSAY
Essay is an important discourse that has to be practiced at secondary level. Every essay has four important parts. They are: The title Introduction Body Conclusion The Title The title of the essay is one of the most important things that we should never take for granted. There is a good reason why this is the case. It is the first thing that the reader sees when he/she gets our paper, and if it is not so good, we can be sure that he/she will lose interest in reading that. Introduction Another thing that we need to know about writing an essay is to come up with the perfect introduction for our essay. Introducing our essay will give us the best foundation, and make it easier to convince the reader that we truly know what we are writing about. The introductory paragraph consists of the following elements: The “hook” sentence—the purpose of this sentence is to capture the reader’s attention. There are six ways to write a hook sentence: 1) Rhetorical Question
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2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
Quotation Analogy Anecdote Description Provocative assertion
The thesis statement—the purpose of this statement is to tell the reader what they should expect to learn, understand, or agree with while reading the essay. The plan of action—is a brief listing of the main points the essay will cover. This is not the place to include specific details or facts. Transition sentence—leads the reader into the body of the essay. Body The body of the essay includes the literature review, the discussion points and the analysis of the information that we have gathered in the subject area. This must be articulated and supported with relevant evidence. The body of an essay may run into many paragraphs. Each paragraph should contain certain elements. The structure of a paragraph consists of four parts. 1. The topic sentence (TS)—is the main idea (or topic) for that particular paragraph. Ex: The latest craze in telephone technology is the I-Phone. 2. Supporting detail 1(SD-1)—is one fact that is directly related to the topic sentence. It provides more detail or description about the topic sentence. Ex: One of the coolest features of the I-phone is the way it looks. 3. Example/Explanation 1 (EE-1)—is comments, description, details, and information that adds to SD-1 and provides additional information about the topic sentence. 4. Example/Explanation 2 (EE-2)—are additional explanations, comments, descriptions, and information that adds to and provides additional information about the topic sentence. EE-2 also contains the transition sentence. The transition sentence serves the purpose of connecting the current paragraph to the following paragraph. It does this by providing a one sentence hint as to the topic of the next paragraph. Ex: In addition to having a cool look, the I-phone also has lightning fast Internet features. As the example topic sentence suggests, the next paragraph is going to explain the Internet features of the I-phone. Conclusion Finally, it is important for you to write a really good conclusion. This is supposed to sum up all the work that we have done so far, and put an end to the discussion.
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3.13.5
BIOGRAPHY
Biographies tell us the lives of people who are living or lived in the past. Biography has certain features. They are: Biography describes and discusses the life of a real person. Information provided in the biography is based on facts. Incidents, dialogue, and people mentioned in the biography are accurate and from a reliable source using first person accounts when available. In a biography a person's life story is told with respect to other people and events of the time in which he/she lived Biography develops an understanding of the places, times, events, and other people when the person lived. Biography tells the story in a style and tone that the reader/listener can relate to the person and believe in their humanness. Example for a biography GANDHI (The father of Nation) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2nd October, 1869, in Porbandar Gujarath, India. Mohandas was from the social cast of tradesmen. His mother’s religious devotion had a lasting impact on Gandhi’s character. As a youngster, Mohandas was a good student, but the shy young boy displayed no signs of leadership. Mohandas travelled to England to gain a degree in law. He became involved with the Vegetarian society. He was fascinated to Bhagavath Geetha. On completing his degree in Law, he returned to India, where he was soon sent to South Africa to practice law. In South Africa, Gandhi was struck by the level of racial discrimination and injustice often experienced by Indians. It was in South Africa that Gandhi first experimented with campaigns of civil disobedience and protest; he called his nonviolent protests – Satyagraha. After 21 years in South Africa, Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He became the leader of the Indian nationalist movement campaigning for home rule or Swaraj. In 1947 India got independence. He was the fore leader to make India free from Britain and known as ‘Father of India”. He was shot by Nathuram Godse in 1948.
3.13.6
DRAMA/SKIT (Writing Script) A script is a piece of writing in the form of drama/skit. It is intended to be performed.
Features of a script for a drama/skit 1) A title: A script must be given a title apt to the concept or theme. 2) Introduction to the characters: There must be some introduction to the characters in the
script who is who.
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3) Setting: The setting is the location where the action takes place. 4) Dialogues: These are the spoken words of the characters. 5) Stage directions: These are the instructions to the reader where there is some action without any dialogue or with dialogue and how the characters behave on the stage or what is happening. These are written in brackets only. Example: Read the following passage carefully. One day, a courtier entered the court with a glass jar in his hands. “What is there in that jar?” asked the emperor. “Your Majesty, Mixture of sand and sugar,” replied the courtier. “What for?” asked Akbar again. “Excuse me, your majesty!” asked the courtier. “We want to test Birbal’s intelligence. We want him to separate each and every grain of sugar from the sand.” “Look, Birbal, almost every day there is a new challenge before you.” Akbar smiled and said, “You have to separate the sugar from the sand without dissolving.” “No problem, your majesty” said Birbal. It’s just a child’s play. Birbal took the jar and went out of the court. The courtiers followed him. Birbal went to the garden and scattered the sand and sugar mixture on the ground near the trunk of a mango tree. “Why have you done this?” asked a courtier. “We will know the result by tomorrow,” replied Birbal. The next day, they went near the mango tree in the garden and found that there were only sand grains lying on the ground. The sugar grains had been carried home by innumerable ants of the nearby ant hill! A few ants could be seen still busy carrying sugar grains to their ant hill. “But where has all the sugar vanished?” asked the courtier. “Separated,” whispered Birbal in his ear. All of them laughed. “If you want to find the sugar, follow the ants into their homes!” said the emperor and all the courtiers began to laugh loudly. Writing Script for the drama/skit to present the above story
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BIRBAL’S INTELLIGENCE Characters: 1) Akbar : The king of the country 2) Birbal : The intelligent minister 3) Courtiers : Who present in the court of Akbar Setting: The might king Akbar’s court. Some courtiers wanted to test the intelligence of Birbal. Scene1: Curtain raises there sat on his majesty Akbar and either side of him his ministers and other courtiers in their chairs including Birbal. A courtier enters the court with a glass jar in his hands. Akbar: (In a commanding voice) What is there in that jar? Courtier: Your Majesty, mixture of sand and sugar. Akbar: What for? Courtier: Excuse me, your majesty! Courtier: We want to test Birbal’s intelligence. We want him to separate each and every grain of sugar from the sand. Akbar: (Looking at Birbal with smile on his face) Look, Birbal, almost every day there is a new challenge before you. And you have to separate the sugar from the sand without dissolving. Birbal: (Immediately) No problem, your majesty. It’s just a child’s play. (Birbal took the jar and went out of the court. The courtiers followed him. Birbal went out the garden and scattered the sand and sugar mixture on the ground near the trunk of a mango tree.) Courtier: (Surprisingly) Why have you done this? Birbal: We will know the result by tomorrow.
Scene2: The next day again the court of the mighty king Akbar. There sat on his majesty Akbar and either side of him his ministers and other courtiers in their chairs including Birbal. Courtier: Your majesty, may I ask Birbal if he had separated the sugar? Akbar: (turning to Birbal) What happened Birbal?
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Birbal: Your majesty, I’ve separated the sugar. Akbar: Then show it us. Birbal: Your majesty, we have to go there into the garden. Akbar: Let’s! (All went to the garden near the mango tree and found that there were only sand grains lying on the ground. The sugar grains had been carried home by innumerable ants of the nearby ant hill! A few ants could be seen still busy carrying sugar grains to their ant hill.) Courtier: (Astonished) But where has all the sugar vanished? Birbal: (Leaning to him whispered) Separated. (All of them burst into laugh) Akbar: If you want to find the sugar, follow the ants into their homes! (All of them burst into laugh again) Akbar: (Looking at Birbal) You won again Birbal!
3.13.7
NOTICE
A notice is a formal means of communication. It’s used to announce something important in schools or public places. A notice must be put in a box. Draw some designs to the box if possible. Format for the Notice: (There is no restricted format but let’s follow some common features) Name of the office or organization NOTICE Heading (subject of the Notice) Body of the Notice Signature Date: Place:
What to mention in the Notice (body):
Name: (In block letters) Designation:
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According to the demand of the Notice and its importance we have to give some data such as date, time, venue, occasion, eligibility, contents, identification marks (If missing notice), entry fee, agenda, purpose, who to attend, contact address and some other specific instructions if needed must be mentioned in the Notice. Along with these data around the Notice a border must be drawn. We can use the following phrases while writing a notice. On the occasion of …. It has been decided to conduct ….. It will be inaugurated by ……. All are welcome. It’s happy to bring your notice that ….. It’s happy to announce that …. Etc. Example: You are the president of the English Literary Club of your school. Write a notice to the office bearers to attend the meeting to discuss on the arrangements on the Children’s Day celebrations. Mention time, date and other important details. ENGLISH LITERARAY CLUB GOVT HIGH SCHOOL -PALLIPADU NOTICE Meeting of the ELC On the occasion of ‘Self Governance Day’ the ELC has decided to organize the celebrations in the order of the honourable Head Master. All the office bearers are requested to attend a meeting in the ‘English Corner Chamber’ on 12th of November 2017 at 10.15 am to discuss the arrangements for the day. The Head Master and the Teacher of English will preside the meeting. Signature Date: 10th Nov’17 MR. RAVEENDRA .A PRESIDENT –ELC
3.13.8
POSTER
A poster or an advertisem*nt is a strong mode of visual, that is, pictorial and verbal communication. It influences the viewer easily by its attractive nature of colourful figures and brevity. Features: Attractive and appropriate pictures Brevity with rhythmic and slogan type language A minimum lay out with some border
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Details to be shown in a poster or advertisem*nt: Heading (Title, caption etc.) Venue Date Time Programme details Who issued the poster Suitable pictures etc., whatever necessary to the context. For example:
3.13.9
WRITING AS A TOOL OF CONSOLIDATING KNOWLEDGE
While writing we pull out all our ideas and consolidate them on paper. For writing we need to speak within ourselves. We formulate thoughts. For thinking we need language. We can’t imagine a language without a thought. Writing helps us record all our thoughts on paper. All knowledge acquired by human race is consolidated and preserved in the form of writing. From ancient stone inscriptions, palm leaves to modern books and e books writing has passed through many evolutional changes. We begin from where our previous generation stopped. We do not start our life by inventing an electric bulb. We start our life with the use of smart phones and modern gadgets. All knowledge about human discoveries, inventions and cultural development is consolidated in written form. 3.14
RESPONDING TO NARRATIVE TEXTS
How should we train our students to understand and respond to a narrative text? There are many strategies though which we can help our students respond to narrative texts. Let’s discuss some important strategies.
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A) Guided Reading Teachers follow the following steps in guided reading.
B)
Preview text, introduce the genre, go over vocabulary, teach other skills, read the text to the learners, or use a K-W-L (Know-Want to Know and Learned) or DRTA activity (Directed Reading Thinking Activity). Have students read the text. Have students read the text. It should be followed by discussions, and by revisiting the text. Literature Circles
In this strategy the teacher is a model. The teacher might venture her or his own questions or responses to get a discussion going. The teacher speaks to get insight, but not for the purpose of lecture. For example he puts questions that may begin with "I wonder about..." to create curiosity among students regarding the narrative text. Later the teacher helps students learn new roles in a literature circle: how to participate in a conversation in the classroom. The teacher moves the conversation forward by inviting other students to comment on something one student said. Teacher asks to clarify an idea, or pose an interesting open-ended question that she or he thought in advance. The teacher supports literary learning by supplying students with concepts and terms they can use to give form to ideas they are trying to express or insights they are struggling to reach. The teacher also applies roles when conducting cooperative learning activities. He / She teaches the roles to the whole class, or one at a time. The teacher encourages students to ask questions from their roles. The roles are used for a rich discussion of the literary work. Roles are rotated among the students. C)
The ABC Model (Anticipation, Building and Consolidation)
This model tells us about the activities that are to be taken up for responding to a text during before-reading, reading and post reading phases. Before reading: Anticipation phase: During this phase readers should think about the topic, and then recall their prior knowledge about it. Readers should wonder how their present knowledge about the topic might relate to the text that are about to read. During reading: Building knowledge phase Teachers provide activities to students which will help them construct meaning from the text. After reading: Consolidation phase
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During this stage readers should summarize the text, interpret and debate the meaning while applying it to new situation ad relating new examples of it. Readers should think back and summarize main ideas, compare what they found, make personal responses to the ideas, test out the ideas to solve problems, or think of other solutions to solve problems in the text. 3.15
INDIVIDUAL WRITING AND COLLABORATIVE WRITING
Writing tasks can be designed as individual writing tasks or collaborative writing tasks. The same task may be given for individual writing followed by group writing. The individual writing process is used to get an expert’s ideas on a topic. The expert’s ideas do not get diluted by the interference of other individuals who may not have equal expertise in the subject area of the text they are writing. In individual writing the quality of the product (text) depends on the competencies of the writer in the particular area, language proficiency and creative thinking ability of the writer who is producing the text. In collaborative writing the knowledge base is wide and the task will be completed in the stipulated time. The opinions and strengths of different people will find an area in the text produced by them. Each individual writer’s expertise, creativity and quality are enhanced when individuals are involved in collaborative work. In the modern cyber era, there is no need for all the writers to sit at one place and do the collaborative writing. There are soft-wares which support interactive collaborative writing. People sitting at different places can write, share and edit the text online by opening it at all places simultaneously. In our schools, when we take up collaborative writing we should see that each group is a heterogeneous one and the teacher should support them in writing and editing the texts. After the collaborative writing activity in the classroom each group’s product (text) should be presented before the whole class. The teacher should consolidate the presentations and give the refined version of the text by adding his ideas to the text. 3.16
EDITING OF CHILDREN’S WRITINGS BASED ON THE INDICATORS We should sensitize our students to edit their texts based on certain indicators for writing.
Indicators for conventions of writing I.
Capitalization 1) Approximation of use with beginning of the names and sentences 2) Uses wherever it is applicable
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II. Punctuation Marks 1) Full stop 2) Comma 3) Question mark 4) Quotation marks 5) Exclamatory 6) Apostrophe 7) Hyphen 8) Colon 9) Semi-colon 10) Parenthesis 11) Space between words and sentences 12) Spelling 13) Abbreviations, acronyms 14) Ellipsis After editing the texts based on indicators related to certain conventions of writing we should train our students to look into the following indicators while editing each written discourse. Written discourses
Conversations
Indicators contains dialogues with five to ten exchanges - proper sequence of exchanges sustaining the conversation with social norms - discourse markers (well, precisely, etc.) dialogues apt to the context - appropriate cohesive devises voice modulation
Descriptions
description of objects/ things/persons creating vivid images - variety of sentence forms proper sequence of the ideas personal reflections on the event or person appropriate cohesive devices
Poems / Songs
suitable structural patterns. - rhyme scheme - specific patterns (rhythm /structure /metre / music / theme, etc.) expressing emotions and reflections use of images, thoughts and feelings use of figures of speech assonance and alliteration point of view
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Narrative/Story
sequence of events and dialogues evoking of sensory perceptions and emotions images, setting and other details use characterization point of view
Diary
expression of personal reflections, thoughts and feelings use of variety of sentences use of language appropriate to the mood self -criticism and future plans point of view coherence
Letter
appropriate language to the context appropriate format, layout and conventions expressing ideas sequentially use of persuasive language maintaining coherence
Messages
relevant ideas to the context maintaining brevity use of conventions, layout and format appropriate language to the content and context
/e-mail/SMS
Notice /Poster / Ads / Invitation
occasions and purposes showing the context details of venue, date, time, salutation, invitation, programme. persuasive language organisation, layout and design maintaining brevity design and graphics rhythm in language (for ads)
Slogans/Placards
appropriate to the context maintaining brevity and rhythm
Drama/Skit
dialogues relevant to the context with emotions and feelings stage directions, movements and settings
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dramatic conflict: beginning, rising actions and ending reference to costumes and props dramatisation - theatrical performance like dialogue delivery, actions, stage sense, costumes, etc.. Essay (All types)
title, introduction, thesis statement, body and conclusion appropriate paragraphing with main ideas supporting details and examples organization of ideas and use of cohesive devices maintaining coherence point of view
News report / Report
appropriate headline lead sentence (five W’s) – what, why ,when, where and who. body of the news organisation and use of cohesive devices coherence reporting style (reported speech, passivization, appropriate tense) point of view
Review
stating the context of the review (story/novel/drama/essay/film) highlighting and commenting on certain features of the item reviewed (e.g. characters/theme/setting /events/turning points etc.) brevity citation from the text to substantiate the point (authenticity) making personal impressions maintaining coherence
Biographical sketch/Profile/Autobiography
ideas and information organization of the data interpretation of data and drawing inference reflections, thoughts and feelings anecdotes, events, achievements point of view organisation and the use of cohesive devices maintaining coherence and flow
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3.17
TEACHER IS A FACILITATOR
A facilitator is the person who assists a group of people in grasping at their common targets and in achieving them without any intervention on his/her behalf. Therefore, when we say the teacher has to play the role of a facilitator in the classroom, this means that the teacher should not be the king who controls the activities of the learners. He /she should grant the learners some space to let the spirits of creativity and innovation. In other words, the learners must get involved into an active participation that would be represented in argumentative discussions and teamwork activities, so that the process of learning becomes comprehensive. 3.18
ASSESSMENT OF WRITING
A teacher isn't the only one who can assess a writing sample. Students can assess their own writing by working in pairs or small groups. Small groups of students can meet and conference about one piece or each student can bring a piece to exchange and have reviewed. Student self-assessment of writing. Many teachers ask students to read over what they've written before it's considered finished. It's often helpful to provide students with a basic checklist to use as they review their work. This student checklist is based on the SEVEN traits of writing. The seven traits of writing to be assessed are: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
Ideas Organization Voice Word choice Sentence fluency Conventions Presentation
Peer Assessment Students can work together in pairs or small groups for assessing the writings of the students of the same group or other group. This peer assessment can help students learn about parts of their writing that was unclear, discover which parts an audience found exciting, and get some suggestions for other things to add. Peer editing takes place in three steps: compliments, suggestions, and corrections. Assessment of student’s writing can be done by using portfolios, rating scales, observations (both direct and indirect) etc. The students’ overall competencies are being assessed in the form of Formative Assessment and Summative Assessments. We have discussed these areas elaborately in fourth paper. 3.19
CONCLUSION
We have gone through many aspects of reading and writing in this chapter. Student teachers are suggested to go through reference books and do field observations. The language
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skills are interlinked and we cannot divide them into watertight compartments. All these skills though they appear independent depend on one another. So language has to be acquired as a whole. We should take up many activities to give practice in reading and writing skills among our students. We should introduce many additional reading materials other than text books. Teacher’s reading should be a good model for the students. Many online activities and games are available for practicing reading and writing. We all know that every high-school will have a digital class-room very soon. As the student-teachers you must prepare yourselves for using digital classrooms for practicing these skills. 3.20 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
3.21
ASSIGNMENT What strategies do you follow while reading an expository text? What are your plans for developing reading habit among students? What is multilingualism? How do you utilize multilingualism as a resource? What is the relationship between reading and writing? What are its classroom implications? What are the written discourses prescribed for secondary level students in English language? What are their features? What are the indicators for assessing an essay? ‘Teacher is a facilitator’. How do you facilitate the development of reading and writing skills among your students? Suggest at least 4 activities that can be used in an English classroom to improve the writing of children. PROJECT WORKS
1) Collect a sample of an expository text and paste it in your record. Write a note on how you facilitate your students to read that text. 2) Visit a nearby high school and find out how collaborative reading and collaborative writing are being practiced in that school. Write your observations about the practices in that school. 3) How the people around you in your society are are using English language for communication purposes? Record your observations. 4) List out the written discourses that are being practiced in 6/7/8 English class of the school you visited for internship. Write your comments on the practices of teaching discourses in that school. 5) Visit a nearby multilingual classroom and record the strategies adopted by the teachers to teach English in such situation. 6) Collect a written discourse of any student and edit it. Paste it in your record book and explain the procedure you followed to edit the discourse.
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3.22
REFERENCES
1. http://www.readingrockets.org/article/reading-and-scaffolding-expository-texts 2. http://www.readingrockets.org/article/how-teach-expository-text-structure-facilitate-readingcomprehension 3. https://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9213/schema.htm 4. Reading beyond the textbook: Why is extensive reading important? Written by Barbara Blair, senior lecturer, Bergen University College. 5. A Source Book for Pre-Service Teacher Education on Classroom Transaction, B.Ed, ENGLISH, published by State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad 6. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/basicreadingandwriting/chapter/outcome-types-of-writing/ 7. http://linguistmam.blogspot.in/2013/04/the-relationship-between-language-and.html 8. Correlations Between Language, Identity, and Discrimination Among Spanish Speakers in Providence, Katherine Rennie, Providence College, Global Studies Senior Thesis. 9. Methods of teaching English. D.Ed. text-book published by Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad. 10. http://www.k12reader.com/the-relationship-between-reading-and-writing/ 11. http://www.naabadi.org/2016/01/viii-ix-and-x-class-english-discourses.html 12. http://www.lawdem.org/4-basic-elements-of-the-essay-structure-how-to-write-them/ 13. https://d3jc3ahdjad7x7.cloudfront.net/BJmTVza2humrOEQcnpaHIRtjpAMEdm8x.ppt 14. http://www.xmind.net/m/jSfe 15. http://petersheehan.blogspot.in/2009/01/collaborative-and-individual-writing.html 16. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/blogs/tamer-osman/how-can-teacher-be-a-facilitator 17. http://www.readingrockets.org/article/writing-assessment ***********
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UNIT – 4 LITERATURE
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LITERATURE Literature is language well used. - Laurence Lerner 4.1
INTRODUCTION
Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken material. Derived from the Latin litteratura meaning "writing formed with letters," literature most commonly refers to works of the creative imagination, including poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction, journalism, and in some instances, song. We all very well know the term ‘literature’ for many years. We get some pleasure while we read any literature. But there is a need for us to know the total concept of literature. In this unit we will get the knowledge relating to literature and its different genres and how to make use of literature in an English classroom. 4.2
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the student teacher Knows the concept of literature. Understands the importance of studying literature. Will have the knowledge about different kinds of literary texts. Understands various theories in responding to literature. Can interpret various genres of literature on his/her own. Can identify literary features in given texts of different genres. Can engage the student with a literary text. 4.3
WHAT IS LITERATURE?
It's difficult to precisely define, though many have tried, but it's clear that the accepted definition of literature is constantly changing and evolving. For many, the word literature suggests a higher art form, merely putting words on a page doesn't necessarily mean creating literature. A canon is the accepted body of works for a given author. Some works of literature are considered canonical, that is culturally representative of a particular genre.
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But what we consider to be literature can vary from one generation to the next. For instance, Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby Dick was considered a failure by contemporary reviewers. However, it has since been recognized as a masterwork, and is frequently cited as one of the best works of western literature for its thematic complexity and use of symbolism to tell the story of Captain Ahab and the white whale. By reading Moby Dick in the present day, we can gain a fuller understanding of literary traditions in Melville's time. In this way, literature is more than just a historical or cultural artifact but can serve as an introduction to a new world of experience. Definition of literature: “Literature is written works of artistic value. (novels, plays and poems)”. (e.g. Sanskrit has a very ancient literature) “Literature is all the works, articles, etc on a particular subject.” (There is a lot of literature available on the subject of ‘Global warming’) “Literature is printed material, especially giving information”. (Have you got any literature on the new medicine?) Let’s find out how some of the critics had defined literature: 1) ‘Literature is language well used’ – Laurence Lerner. 2) Great Literature is simply language charged with meaning to the utmost degree. – Ezra Pound 3) Literature is the art of saying something that will be read twice. – Cyril Connolly 4) Literature is the human activity that takes the fullest and most precise account of various-ness, possibility, complexity and unity. - Lionel Trilling 5) All that is literature seeks to communicate power; all that is not literature to communicate knowledge. – De Quency 6) Literature has as one of its principal allures that it tells you something about life that life itself can't tell you. I just thought literature is a thing that human beings do. - Richard Ford 7) Literature adds to reality, it does not simply describe it. It enriches the necessary competencies that daily life requires and provides; and in this respect, it irrigates the deserts that our lives have already become. - C.S.Lewis We can understand from the above definitions and views that literature gives us ‘pleasure’ and it is ‘beautiful’ (artistic). Literature uses a particular kind of language. It has a permanent or lasting quality and effect on the reader and the society. Simply put, literature represents the culture and tradition of a language or a people.
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4.4
THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LITERATURE We study literature for two obvious reasons.
1) The study of literature supports and complements the language and communication skills. The study of literature helps us appreciate other people’s point of view. When we read a tragedy like Macbeth we feel sorry for certain characters. When we read a tragic story we shed tears. So, by reading literature we understand other’s problems and become one with his/her situation. While reading comedies we feel happy for the people whose lives have become better after a lot of suffering. Students need to learn to appreciate other people’s problems, their concerns and interests in order to become good communicators. Literature also gives the readers some information about the culture from where it originated. An American cannot get the full pleasure of R.K.Narayan’s ‘The English Teacher’ without knowing something about the Indian culture. Works of literature, at their best, provide a kind of blueprint of human civilization. From the writings of ancient civilizations like Egypt, and China, to Greek philosophy and poetry; from the epics of Homer to the plays of Shakespeare, from Jane Austen and Charlotte Bronte to Maya Angelou, works of literature give insight and context to all the world's societies. A literary text is an interpretation of an experience – it is a community’s interpretation of experience. By reading some literature we learn a lot about people, their beliefs, likes and dislikes views about life and death, man woman relation etc. Without adequate knowledge about the culture of a people, we cannot become competent speakers of that people’s language. A literary text gives us the knowledge of a culture in memorable contexts. With this knowledge students will have a higher level of competence in English than those who have acquired only the skills. The readers of literature will have more flexible communication strategies. 2) Literature drives away the readers’ prejudices, their biases. It can make them respect fellow human beings. It can support a civilized society’s efforts to teach its people treat one another and people from other societies decently. Literature can function more effectively than a sermon; or a lecture; or a discourse on good and evil. This is literature’s unique power. Literature is important to us because it speaks to us, it is universal, and it affects us on a deeply personal level. Even when it is ugly, literature is beautiful.
4.5
ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN LIFE
Oxford English Dictionary defines language as “Words and the methods of combining them for the expression of thoughts” According to B. Bloch, (1942), “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specific example of such a system. Language is the divine gift of the god. It is language that distinguishes man form animals. Language is man’s finest asset. To the philosopher, language may be the instrument of thought, for we think through language. Language is an extremely important way of interacting with the people around us.
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According to H.A. Gleason, “Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behavior.” Without language we cannot communicate with people. As it is a vital tool for communication. We all know that we are living in multilingual world that is becoming globalized and therefore it is very important to know more than one language. By learning more than one language it could open many career doors, it can help us progress in our career, we can gain awareness of other cultures and it can increase our understanding and knowledge towards language. In today era it has become mandatory to learn at least 2 languages. Knowing language is not only means of communication but it builds economic relationships, friendships, and culture ties. As we all know that English language had become a unique language, but in this world there are still many people who don’t know English language. English is one such connecting language. Learning language fascinate opportunities to develop their listening, speaking, reading and writing skills and to express themselves with full confidence. John Stuart Mill referred that “language to be the light of the mind”. In today era, the basic knowledge of a single or more language has become crucial. Language has become the major tool of communication between countries, cultural groups, various companies and organizations, communities and friends. Wittgenstein says “The limit of my language is the limit of my world”. He implies that people those who speak one language, live only in one world. A baby is born without language, but even without any formal training, at the age of 4 or 5, the child knows several hundred words and grammar of a particular language. For a last few years, millions of people across the world, who share common interest, are able to communicate with each other and exchange ideas. Not only they are able to do this due to advanced technology, but also because they share a common language. Language is the bridge which connects individual and the outside world. Language is closely related to the culture, you can only get to understand the person very well if you can speak his language. Due to the development of technology, our world today is the world of information with faster globalization process. Thus understanding each other through language become an even more important issue. Language is a vehicle that we use in presenting our ideas, thoughts, feelings, and opinion to the world. As Chomsky proves the purpose of language he said “the purpose of language is for communication”. The role of language in the life of the individual and for the human civilization can be stated as following: 1) Vehicle of thought: Language is the vehicle of our thought. We think through language. Thought is called sub-vocal speech. The thinking process is disturbed if the individual has deficiency in language. 2) Medium of expression: Language is the medium of expression of our feelings and experiences. In other words we express our feelings and experiences through language.
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3) Medium of communication: We communicate with one another through language. With the advent of the concept of globalization, people all over the globe communicate with each other and exchange ideas. Though technological advances have served as a medium for communication, you cannot deny the role played by language. Understanding of a common language has helped people to communicate, despite being from varied parts of the world. Language has become a major tool of communication between countries and cultural groups. 4) Communication with other countries: Different countries communicate with each other through language only. International communities exchange their views through English language because English is an international language. 5) Moral development: Language is also connected to the moral development in a child. The process begins when the child is about 18 months old. The child learns the right and wrong by listening to what his parents or other adults tell him. Imagine teaching the child the difference of right or wrong without the tool of language! Language is the code of our consciousness and helps us see what we may be agreeing to and creating in our world. On a less than conscious level, every day we use language by confirming and denying circ*mstances. 6) Developing and grooming one’s personality: Language aids in developing and grooming one’s personality as a whole. Since learning a language is part of our knowledge, it becomes one of the key factors in competitiveness. In the advanced industrial society of today, the basic knowledge of a single or more languages has become indispensable. 7) Human developmental process: Language is one of the key factors of our human developmental process, which sets us apart from the rest of the animal kingdom and knits a strong feeling of kinship among us. A baby at the age of 4 or 5 can speak hundreds of words in a language. This is an inherent human tendency, which is extremely important for further growth. Any discrepancy seen in learning a language at such early stage might indicate certain learning problems in a child. 8) Child’s growth: In the developmental trajectory of a child, language plays an important role since it is connected with various aspects of a child’s growth. Learning a language is directly related to emotional development. For instance, a baby gazing at his parent’s face is responded by cooing and few words of love by his parents. This retains in the baby’s mind and when he is a little older, he begins using language to express his emotions as well. 9) Bases of Education: Language is the bases of all education. School education is predominately language oriented. Reading, writing and arithmetic are all based on language proficiency. 10) Medium of literature: Language is the medium of literature. All great literature is produced through the medium of language. Language thus helps us to read literature, understand and appreciate the work of great writers and poets. 11) Growth of civilization: Language contributes to the growth of our civilization. Language and civilization are inseparable. 12) Development of peace: Language contributes to peace process. International understanding and international peace have been possible through the medium of language.
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Generally speaking Language is a socially shared code, or conventional system, that represents ideas through the use of arbitrary symbols and rules that govern combinations of these symbols. Human speech is very much complicated. It cannot be explained from any single source. The first sound a child makes on coming into the world is one of discomfort, it is a cry, a reflex action and the child does not expect a response. In the developmental trajectory of a child, language plays an important role since it is connected with various aspects of a child’s growth. 4.6
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Language and Literature are two words that appear similar in their purport but strictly speaking they are not so. Language is the fundamental unit of literature. In other words it can be said that language makes literature. Literature is produced by the creation of works in a particular language by the writers of the language. A language on the other hand is a mode of expression of thought by means of articulate sounds. This is the main difference between language and literature. There can be as many literatures as there are languages. A language comprises of sounds, words and sentences. The manner in which the words combine to form sentences is important in any language. On the other hand literature is made up of the thoughts expressed in any given language. Thus it can be said that literature has several forms. Each of these forms is called a literary form. The various literary forms are poetry, prose, drama, epic, free verse, short story, novel and the like. Each of these literary forms is laden with the language in which it is written. In short it can be said that the entire literature is constructed by the language in which it is written. Language is the method of expression whereas literature is the collection of such expressions in the said forms or the forms mentioned above. Any literature can be said to be rich or poor depending upon the correctness of the language in which the particular literature is created. For example a piece poetry created with thoughtful expressions in English language enhances the quality of English literature by leaps and bounds. Experts of any given language produce high quality literature in that particular language. The language experts are said to be well versed in grammar and prosody of the particular language. 4.7
TYPES OF LITERARY TEXTS
A text can come in any form and be any kind of writing. Letters, adverts, user-guides, emails, postcards, notes and magazine articles are all different types of text. According to the functions of the texts we can categorize them into five types. There are 5 major texts types: 1) Narrative 2) Descriptive
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3) Directive 4) Expository 5) Argumentative Narrative Texts Read the following text:
Last week we installed a kitty door so that our cat could come and go as she pleases. Unfortunately, we ran into a problem. Our cat was afraid to use the kitty door. We tried pushing her through, and that caused her to be even more afraid. The kitty door was dark, and she couldn’t see what was on the other side. The first step we took in solving this problem was taping the kitty door open. After a couple of days, she was confidently coming and going through the open door. However, when we removed the tape and closed the door, once again, she would not go through. They say you catch more bees with honey, so we decided to use food as bait. We would sit next to the kitty door with a can of wet food and click the top of the can. When kitty came through the closed door, we would open the can and feed her. It took five days of doing this to make her unafraid of using the kitty door. Now we have just one last problem; our kitty controls our lives!
The above text tells us about an incident that took place in a house. This is an example for narrative texts. Narrative texts have to do with real-world events and time. They may even be fictional. The novels, fairy tales also belong to this category. Generally in narrative texts the events are sequenced and each even depends on the earlier event for its sense. The text contains verbs and linkers that maintain integrity of the text. Descriptive Texts Read the following text: The old man was stooped and bent, his back making the shape of a C and his head bent so far forward that his beard would nearly have touched his knobby knees had he been just a bit taller. His deep and soulful blue eyes were like the color of the ocean on the clearest day you can ever imagine. In descriptive texts, the author does not tell the reader what was seen, felt, tested, smelled, or heard. Rather, he describes something that he experienced and, through his choice of words, makes it seem real. In other words, descriptive writing is vivid, colorful, and detailed. Descriptive writing creates an impression in the reader’s mind of an event, a place, a person, or thing. The writing will be such that it will set a mood or describe something in such detail that if the reader saw it, they would recognize it. Descriptive writing will bring words to life and makes the text interesting.
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Because descriptive text is so powerful, many examples of it can be found in famous literature and poetry. In this excerpt from Jamaica Inn by Daphne du Maurier, notice the writer’s choice of adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. “It was a cold grey day in late November. The weather had changed overnight, when a backing wind brought a granite sky and a mizzling rain with it, and although it was now only a little after two o'clock in the afternoon the pallor of a winter evening seemed to have closed upon the hills, cloaking them in mist.” Directive Texts Read the following text: "Please take a seat." "Please wait here." "Please hold the line." "Please don't smoke here." "Kindly return the documents as soon as possible." "Kindly forward this to the Sales and Marketing department." "Kindly send me 2 copies of your brochure." “Do try to sleep well the night before.” “Do drink plenty of water.” “Do try to walk about the plane during the flight.” “Don't drink alcohol.” “Don't eat heavy meals.” “Don't wear restrictive clothing.” Directive texts are concerned with concrete future activity. Central to these texts are imperatives or forms which substitute for them, such as polite questions or suggestive remarks. Expository Texts Read the following text: Outer Space From far out in space, Earth looks like a blue ball. Since water covers three-fourths of the Earth’s surface, blue is the color we see most. The continents look brown, like small islands floating in the huge, blue sea. White clouds wrap around the Earth like a light blanket. The Earth is shaped like a sphere, or a ball. It is 25,000 miles around! It would take more than a year to stroll around the whole planet. A spaceship can fly around the widest part of the sphere in only 90 minutes. Even though spaceships have traveled to the Moon, people cannot visit the Moon without special suits. The Moon has no air or water. Plants and animals can’t live there either. Astronauts first landed on the Moon in 1969. After that, there were six more trips to the Moon. They brought back Moon rocks, which scientists are still studying. There are holes, or craters, all over the Moon’s surface. Scientists believe that meteorites smashed into the Moon millions of years ago and formed the craters.
108 The Sun is the closest star to Earth. A star is a hot ball of burning gas. The Sun looks very big because it is so close. But the Sun is just a medium-sized star. Billions of far-away stars are much bigger than our Sun. The burning gases from the Sun are so hot that they warm the Earth from 93 million miles away! Even though the Sun is always glowing, the night here on Earth is dark. That’s because the Earth rotates, or turns around, every 24 hours. During the day, the Earth faces the Sun. Then we see light. During the night, the Earth turns away from the Sun. Then it faces the darkness of space.
Each day we learn more about the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun. - Meish Goldfish Expository text is a type of informational text that provides factual information about a topic using a clear, non-narrative organizational structure with a major topic and supporting information. Expository texts can include topics such as historical, scientific or economic information. Information is presented with a clear organizational text structure which includes but is not limited to: description, chronology, comparison, cause/effect, problem/solution. The language in expository text is precise, specific to the subject, and includes domain specific vocabulary to explain concepts and information. Expository text often includes organizational tools such as table of contents, headings, index, glossary, pronunciation guide, appendices. Expository text includes text features that support or enhance the text such as photographs, illustrations, captions, charts, diagrams, tables, graphs, and timelines. Argumentative Texts Read the following text: Single Parent Struggle For many years, children growing up in a single parent family have been viewed as different. Being raised by only one parent seems impossible to many yet over the decades it has become more prevalent. In today’s society many children have grown up to become emotionally stable and successful whether they had one or two parents to show them the rocky path that life bestows upon all human beings. The problem lies in the difference of children raised by single parents versus children raised by both a mother and a father. Does a child need both parents? Does a young boy need a father figure around? Does the government provide help for single parents? What role do step-parents and step-siblings play? With much speculation, this topic has become a very intriguing argument. What people must understand is that properly raising a child does not rely on the structure of a family but should be more focused on the process or values that are taught to these children as they learn to mature. Children of single parents can be just as progressive with emotional, social and behavioral skills as those with two parents. People claim that the only way for children to gain full emotional and behavioral skills is to be raised by both a mother and a father. When a topic such as this one has a broad amount of variables it is impossible to simply link these problems to only having one parent. In the article, “Single-parent families cause juvenile crime”, author Robert L. Maginnis states, “Children from single-parent families are more likely to have behavior problems because they tend to lack economic security and adequate time with parents”.
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The simple statement that raw criminals are products of single-parent adolescence is absurd. What this writer must understand is that it can be extremely difficult for one parent to raise a child by themselves for many reasons. A single-parent must work full time to be able to afford to provide for themselves and their child. They must also be able to still have time to offer an exuberant amount of emotional time for the well-being of their child. However, even though this may seem impossible, it can be done. In argumentative texts, you have an opinion and you argue to convince reader on your opinion. You reveal or discuss you agreement or disagreement with someone or something. There are different types of argumentative texts. Argumentative texts have multiple benefits and can be used for different purposes. Express opinions: Your personal opinion can be stated and explained in argumentative texts. As the name reveals, argumentative texts help you to settle your opinion and give arguments on it. The arguments can be for or against the topic. The arguments must be strong and comprehensive. Persuasive: Your text should be persuasive enough to settle your arguments. Arguments should be compelling, potent and efficacious. Moreover, it is often vehement and profound. Argumentative text gives you enough margins to analyze your own argument. Logical Argumentative text has its philosophy in logic. The whole structure is formed such that it assembles and integrates all the arguments and helps you nurture your point of view and hence, represent it to others in a more compelling way. Planning/Organization Argumentative text is not a page of diary that you start writing whatever comes to your mind. The whole set involves insightful and comprehensive planning to make it more organized and structured. Planning also helps to accumulate ideas, arguments and perspectives. Without planning, you cannot produce a successful argumentative text. It provides more opportunities to offer support and reasons for the argument or perspective you support. You also get chance to refute the opposing ideas or arguments. Concluding the text Once you have described and presented all your supporting points, you need to summarize and conclude it at the end. In this way, you revisit your opinion and also it strengthens your point of view by proving that the focus is not lost in all its way and is well proven.
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Certain things should be taken care of while developing an argumentative text. Always use sequence of arguments instead of presenting them haphazardly. No strong personal expressions must be used as it gives business to your arguments and weakens the grounds of your essay. Examples should also be provided to strengthen your thesis and try to write original knowledge and information in the whole text. Give interesting points so that your essay doesn’t become boring. 4.8
READERS’ RESPONSE THEORY
Author
Text
Reader
M.H.ABRAM’s Triangle. The above diagram tells us the importance of readers’ response to a text. The author produces a text for the readers to interpret and the readers’ response gives him/her a scope to improve himself/herself in producing further texts. Reader-response theories suggest that readers adopt a range of different roles. Many theorists, including traditional literary critics, refer vaguely to a hypothetical, impersonal being known as "the reader!' In most cases, of course, "the reader" is an imagined extension of these theorists' own reading experience. In this rhetorical move, the writer or critic proposes an interpretation and then presumes that "the reader" will make the same interpretation. Other theorists, as Elizabeth Freund catalogs in her survey of response theories, specify personifications of "the reader": "the mock reader (Gibson); the implied reader (Booth, Ise.); the model reader (Eco); the super reader (Riffaterre); the inscribed or encoded reader (Brooke-Rose); the narratee/reader (Prince);the "competent" reader (Culler); the literate reader (Holland); or the informed reader in the interpretive community (Fish)" . Few of these conceptions arise from investigations of actual readers. Rather than exploring the ways in which actual readers may respond, these different conceptions reflect assumptions about the hypothetical nature of the text/reader transaction. Conceiving of the reader as "implied" reflects a more text-based orientation; in contrast, conceiving of the reader as resisting, as does feminist Judith Fetter ley, reflects a more readerbased orientation. Or, a liberal humanist perspective conceives of the reader as a coherent, autonomous being whose response reflects determined moral certainties (Good heart). At the same time, the very notion of "actual" readers as autonomous, independent "individuals" has been challenged by post-structuralist theories whose proponents conceive of "actual" readers as
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themselves constructed by various institutional discourses. Similarly, they may argue that the postmodern literature of writers like Barthelme and Coover serves to undermine and decenter the reader's responses, thereby undercutting his or her attempt to respond as a coherent self(Barthes). By calling into question traditional forms of representation, post mode,..i literature questions the idea of established moral and institutional norms defining a reader's self (Hebdige).Theorists also argue that readers respond for a range of different purposes. Readers may respond to express their emotional reactions, to explore difficulties in understanding, to corroborate or verify their opinions with others, to build a social relationship through sharing responses, or to clarify their attitudes. These different purposes imply an equally wide range of response strategies. engaging, conceiving, connecting, explaining, interpreting, judging These strategies can serve as basis for devising various response activities (Beach and Marshall). Equally important, students do not simply use these strategies one at a time; they learn to employ a range of strategies simultaneously, moving from one to the next. An under-standing of these various strategies thus serves as a theoretical basis for devising and organizing classroom activities. Responding in the classroom is not limited to written or discussion responses. Reader-response theory also gives us grounds to acknowledge a steadily widening range of response media, including, for example, oral interpretation, role-playing, art-work, rewriting texts, or creating new ones. Given these multiple roles, purposes, text types, and contexts, reader-response theorists tend to focus on different aspects of these components. While each theorist may represent a range of different perspectives, he or she has been somewhat arbitrarily categorized as falling within one of five primary theoretical perspectives. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Textual Experiential Psychological Social Cultural.
For example, while the textual perspective illuminates the reader's knowledge of text conventions, the social perspective illuminates the social context. Textual theorists focus on how readers draw on and deploy their knowledge of text or genre conventions to respond to specific text features. For example, in responding to a mystery story, a reader applies her knowledge of mystery genre conventions to predict the story outcomes.
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Experiential theorists focus on the nature of readers' engagement or experiences with texts the ways in which, for example, readers identify with characters, visualize images, relate personal experiences to the text, or construct the world of the text. Psychological theorists focus on readers' cognitive or subconscious processes and how those processes vary according to both unique individual personality and developmental level. Social theorists focus on the influence of the social context on the reader/text transaction the ways, for example, that a book club context serves to encourage a lot of open-ended responses. Finally, cultural theorists focus on how readers' cultural roles, attitudes, and values, as well as the larger cultural, historical context, shape responses. For example, members of a religious sect are socialized to respond to sacred texts according to the cultural values of that sect. 4.9
RESPONDING TO LITERATURE
Responding to literature is the way in which one reacts to something that has been read or listened to (Cooper, 1993). This process begins before reading as one thinks about what is to be read and continues during and after reading (Martinez & Roser, 1991). Rosenblatt (1938/1976; 1978) has contended for many years that individuals construct their own meanings by transacting with the text. When response activities are the natural things one does with texts that have been read or listened to, they help students develop deeper understandings and help them relate what they have read to their own personal experiences (Gambrell, 1986; Hickman, 1983). It is through this process that individuals learn to construct meaning or comprehend (Cullinan, Harwood, & Galda, 1983). Advantages of responding to Literature Response activities provide students with the opportunities to relate narrative or expository text to their own personal experiences (Martinez & Roser, 1991). Through this personal transaction with the text, students formulate their own meanings and develop their overall abilities to construct meaning (Cullinan, Harwood, & Galda, 1983; Eeds & Wells, 1989). By responding to literature, students see models of writing that they will ultimately incorporate into their own writing (Dressel, 1990). How do readers respond to literature? Researchers have found that readers respond to literature in a variety of ways. 1) Retelling 2) Summarizing
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3) Analyzing 4) Generalizing Very young children are able to respond in these ways on a very simple level (Many, 1991). As students become more experienced readers and writers, they develop more sophisticated abilities to construct meaning by analyzing and evaluating literature (Kelly & Farnan, 1991). Writing is one form of responding to literature (Harste, Short, & Burke, 1988). By giving a written response to literature, students are learning to construct meaning through writing; they are further developing their ability to think critically (Tierney & Shanahan, 1991). It is important for the teacher to model different types of responding behaviors for students (Martinez & Roser, 1991). For example, the teacher might show students how to ask good questions about a book, make an oral comparison for students, or give an oral summary of a book. Through these procedures, the teacher is also modeling the constructing of meaning through response activities (Roser & Martinez, 1985; Cochran-Smith, 1984). When children have opportunities to discuss books that have been read, they are also modeling responding for each other as well as modeling the construction of meaning (Eeds & Wells, 1989). 4.10
SCHEMA
A Schema is a mental concept that informs a person about what to expect from a variety of experiences and situations. Linguists, cognitive psychologists, and psycholinguists have used the concept of schema (plural: schemata) to understand the interaction of key factors affecting the comprehension process. Simply put, schema theory states that all knowledge is organized into units. Within these units of knowledge, or schemata, is stored information. A schema, then, is a generalized description or a conceptual system for understanding knowledge-how knowledge is represented and how it is used. According to this theory, schemata represent knowledge about concepts: objects and the relationships they have with other objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions, and sequences of actions. A simple example is to think of your schema for dog. Within that schema you most likely have knowledge about dogs in general (bark, four legs, teeth, hair, tails) and probably information about specific dogs, such as collies (long hair, large, Lassie) or springer spaniels (English, docked tails, liver and white or black and white, Millie). You may also think of dogs within the greater context of animals and other living things; that is, dogs breathe, need food, and reproduce. Your knowledge of dogs might also include the fact that they are mammals and thus are warm-blooded and bear their young as opposed to laying eggs. Depending upon your personal experience, the knowledge of a dog as a pet (domesticated and loyal) or as an animal to fear (likely to bite or attack) may be a part of your schema. And so it goes with the development of a schema. Each new experience incorporates more information into one's schema. What does all this have to do with reading comprehension? Individuals have schemata for everything. Long before students come to school, they develop schemata (units of knowledge) about everything they experience. Schemata become theories about reality. These theories not only affect the way
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information is interpreted, thus affecting comprehension, but also continue to change as new information is received. As stated by Rumelhart (1980), schemata can represent knowledge at all levels-from ideologies and cultural truths to knowledge about the meaning of a particular word, to knowledge about what patterns of excitations are associated with what letters of the alphabet. We have schemata to represent all levels of our experience, at all levels of abstraction. Finally, our schemata are our knowledge. All of our generic knowledge is embedded in schemata. The importance of schema theory to reading comprehension also lies in how the reader uses schemata. This issue has not yet been resolved by research, although investigators agree that some mechanism activates just those schemata most relevant to the reader's task. Schemata Classifications The three classifications of schemata are content, formal and abstract. Content schemata are defined as being based on "abductive judgments about particular facts and states of affairs" (Oller Ibid. p.286, quoted in Sasaki 2000, p.87). Formal schemata seem to be developed from more distant connections of states of affairs that are somewhat similar. The third classification of abstract schemata includes pure symbols and inductive integration. Abduction is recognizing a distinct representation; however induction is done if the recognition is more personal. The abstraction is an expansion of a single reference to act as a type through deduction. Here is an example for Schema Classification. Suppose we are thinking of a hotel. The 'Abstract knowledge' tells us it is a place rented to sleep the night at, whereas 'Formal knowledge' fills in additional information about the concept of hotels; having floors, an elevator, room numbers, keys, perhaps a bell hop, and 'Content knowledge' would be things like the specific name of the hotel, its actual location on a map, even the color of the carpet in our room. 4.10
ENGAGING WITH A TEXT
We all read many texts regularly. As teachers we need to know how to train the readers/ students in engaging with different texts. The following tips will help the learners engage with texts in a better way. 1) Read slowly and actively: While engaging with a texts read slowly, take notes, and constantly question not only whether you’ve understood what the author is trying to say, but also whether what s/he says is true, and whether the arguments support the conclusions. 2) Look for signposts: Sentences that indicate what the text is about, what has been, is being, or will be argued. 3) Ask what the passage of text offers: A new concept, a framework for understanding an issue, an argument for a conclusion? 4) Argument mapping: Find the arguments. Identify premises, inferences, and conclusions. Break arguments down into steps (there can be many interim conclusions). 5) Don’t be afraid to challenge: Try to find inconsistencies in the text, but also try to find ways to interpret the text to remove the inconsistencies.
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6) Ask what interpretation best fits the purpose of the author: Does an interpretation presuppose ideas that were not available to the author? 7) Know the point of any example used: Examples can seize the imagination and memory, but knowing its purpose and what it is supposed to show is central to understanding the text. 8) Look up key words in a dictionary: Be active and use a good dictionary for finding out the meanings and usage of new words in the given context. 4.12 VARIOUS LITERARY GENRES Genre is a word taken from French language which means ‘a kind’. It is pronounced as nr /. The dictionary meaning of genre is ‘a style or category of art, music, or literature.’ The Five Main Genres of Literature: Literature is a broad term that encompasses almost everything we read, see, and hear. It helps to be able to break it down into categories, for ease of understanding and analysis. Here are 5 genres of literature commonly taught in the classroom, with explanations and examples. The five genres of literature students should be familiar with are Poetry, Drama, Prose, Nonfiction, and Media—each of which is explained in more detail below. You’ll see some overlap between genres; for example prose is a broader term that includes both drama and nonfiction. At the end of this article we’ll also touch on a couple of narrower but still important literary categories. Poetry This is often considered the oldest form of literature. Before writing was invented, oral stories were commonly put into some sort of poetic form to make them easier to remember and recite. Poetry today is usually written down, but is still sometimes performed. A lot of people think of rhymes and counting syllables and lines when they think of poetry, and some poems certainly follow strict forms. But other types of poetry are so free-form that they lack any rhymes or common patterns. There are even kinds of poetry that cross genre lines, such as prose poetry. In general, though, a text is a poem when it has some sort of meter or rhythm, and when it focuses on the way the syllables, words, and phrases sound when put together. Poems are heavy in imagery and metaphor, and are often made up of fragments and phrases rather than complete, grammatically correct sentences. And poetry is nearly always written in stanzas and lines, creating a unique look on the page. Poetry as experienced in the classroom is usually of three types. There are the shorter, more modern poems, spanning anything from a few lines to a few pages. Often these are collected in books of poems by a single author or by a variety of writers. Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven," is one of the most commonly taught poems of this type. Then there are the classical, formulaic poems of Shakespeare’s time, such as the blank verse and the sonnet. And finally there are the ancient, epic poems transcribed from oral stories. These long, complex poems resemble novels, such as Homer’s The Iliad and The Odyssey.
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Prose Once we know what poetry is, it’s easy to define prose. Prose can be defined as any kind of written text that isn’t poetry (which means drama, discussed below, is technically a type of prose). The most typical varieties of prose are novels and short stories, while other types include letters, diaries, journals, and non-fiction (also discussed below). Prose is written in complete sentences and organized in paragraphs. Instead of focusing on sound, which is what poetry does, prose tends to focus on plot and characters. Prose is the type of literature read most often in English classrooms. Any novel or short story falls into this category, from ‘Jane Eyre’ to ‘Twilight’ and from “A Sound of Thunder" to “The Crucible." Like poetry, prose is broken down into a large number of other sub-genres. Some of these genres revolve around the structure of the text, such as novellas, biographies, and memoirs, and others are based on the subject matter, like romances, fantasies, and mysteries. Drama Any text meant to be performed rather than read can be considered drama (unless it’s a poem meant to be performed, of course). In layman’s terms, dramas are usually called plays. When written down the bulk of a drama is dialogue, with periodic stage directions such as “he looks away angrily." Of all the genres of literature discussed in this article, drama is the one given the least time in most classrooms. And often when drama is taught, it’s only read the same way you might read a novel. Since dramas are meant to be acted out in front of an audience, it’s hard to fully appreciate them when looking only at pages of text. Students respond best to dramas, and grasp their mechanics more fully, when exposed to film or theater versions or encouraged to read aloud or act out scenes during class. The dramas most commonly taught in classrooms are definitely those written by the bard. Shakespeare’s plays are challenging, but rewarding when approached with a little effort and a critical mindset. Popular choices from his repertoire include Hamlet, Taming of the Shrew, and Romeo and Juliet, among others. Older Greek plays are also taught fairly often, especially Sophocles’ Antigone. And any good drama unit should include more modern plays for comparison, such as Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. Non-Fiction Poetry and drama both belong to the broader category of fiction—texts that feature events and characters that have been made up. Then there is non-fiction, a vast category that is a type of prose and includes many different sub-genres. Non-fiction can be creative, such as the personal essay, or factual, such as the scientific paper. Sometimes the purpose of non-fiction is to tell a story (hence the autobiography), but most of the time the purpose is to pass on information and educate the reader about certain facts, ideas, and/or issues. Biography, form of literature, commonly considered nonfictional, the subject of which is the life of an individual. One of the oldest forms of literary expression, it seeks to re-create in
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words the life of a human being—as understood from the historical or personal perspective of the author—by drawing upon all available evidence, including that retained in memory as well as written, oral, and pictorial material. Some genres of non-fiction include histories, textbooks, travel books, newspapers, selfhelp books, and literary criticism. But the varieties most often used in the classroom are textbooks, literary criticism, and essays of various sorts. Most of what students practice writing in the classroom is the non-fiction essay, from factual to personal to persuasive. And non-fiction is often used to support and expand students’ understanding of fiction texts—after reading Hamlet students might read critical articles about the play and historical information about the time period and/or the life of Shakespeare. Media The newest type of literature that has been defined as a distinct genre is media. This categorization was created to encompass the many new and important kinds of texts in our society today, such as movies and films, websites, commercials, billboards, and radio programs. Any work that doesn’t exist primarily as a written text can probably be considered media, particularly if it relies on recently developed technologies. Media literature can serve a wide variety of purposes—among other things it can educate, entertain, advertise, and/or persuade. More and more educators are coming to recognize the importance of teaching media in the classroom. Students are likely to be exposed to far more of this type of literature than anything else throughout their lives, so it makes sense to teach them how to be critical and active consumers of media. Internet literacy is a growing field, for example, since the skills required to understand and use online information differ in important ways from the skills required to analyze printed information. Teaching media literacy is also a great way for educators to help students become participants in their own culture, through lessons on creating their own websites or home movies or commercials. Other Genres of Literature These are far from the only important genres of literature. Here are a few more that are sometimes used in classrooms: Oral Literature: The oldest type of literature, and the foundation on which culture was built. Now most oral texts have been written down, of course, and are usually taught in the form of epic poems or plays or folk tales. Folklore/Folk Tales/Fables: A distinction is often made between regular prose and folklore. Most folk tales were originally oral literature, and are short stories meant to pass on a particular lesson or moral. They
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often have a timeless quality, dealing with common human concerns that are just as relevant to us today, while still being products of a very specific culture and time period. Graphic Novels and Comic Books: It used to be that most educators saw comic books as the lowest form of literature, not suitable or valuable for children. But times have changed, and many teachers have come to realize that comic books and the more modern graphic novels are both appealing to kids and are a valid form of literature in their own right. 4.13
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF VARIOUS LITERARY TEXTS
While analyzing a literary text we should look at the following elements in it. Physical appearance Words and phrases Word order and sentence structure Images Rhyme and rhythm Characters Plot Atmosphere Scene setting We should also help and train our students to understand the writer/narrator’s attitude to the objects/people/situations that are presented in the text. We should also look through the point that the writer is making in his text. As part of interpretation the readers may be asked express why they like/dislike the text or writer. Analyzing a poem A poem makes a picture with words. It uses simple and easy to imagine comparisons. I CANNOT remember my mother, only sometime in the midst of my play a tune seems to hover over my playthings, the tune of some song that she used to hum while rocking my cradle. I cannot remember my mother, but when in the early autumn morning the smell of the shiuli flowers floats in the air, the scent of the morning service in the temple comes to me as the scent of my mother.
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I cannot remember my mother, only when from my bedroom window I send my eyes into the blue of the distant sky, I feel that the stillness of my mother's gaze on my face has spread all over the sky. Rabindranath Tagore. ‘I Cannot Remember my Mother' is a gentle nostalgic poem written by 'Guru' Rabindranath Tagore. In this poem, he expresses his inability to actually recall the face or the features of his mother. But often a smell or a tune triggered off in him happy moments that he shared with his mother. When he looks at his playthings he seems to be able to hear a tune. Perhaps his mother often sang the same song as she rocked him to sleep in the cradle. He recalls this tune as he touches his old toys. In autumn, the Shiuli tree in Bengal blossoms into fragrant tiny flowers which are used for worship. His mother would string the flowers for the morning service at the temple. So the powerful fragrance of the Shiuli flowers would trigger off happy memories of his mother. He can recall the quiet serene gaze of his mother when he looks at the vast expanse of the clear blue sky. The simple lines of the poem eloquently reveal the deep seated emotional bonding that the poet had with his mother. It makes us realize the great impact her quiet dignity had on the poet even at that tender age, for the poet recalls experiences of his infancy and pre - school days. The poet used wonderful imagery to express his feelings towards his mother. The poem appeals to the reader and invokes in the readers mind a responsibility towards their parents. The poet wants to convey the greatness and impact of mother on a child throughout the life of a person. The poet makes us identify ourselves with the characters in the poem. Looking at the shape, the sounds, the sentences, the words and the images we can guess how the poet wants us to respond. The poet wants to share his admiration for the mother. Interpretation of Prose: We can interpret a prose text by using the following criteria. 1) Content (What) What is the selection about? What are the main ideas? Make a short summary. 2) Theme or Focus (Why)
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What is the primary purpose of the writer? Possible purposes: to entertain, to inform, to persuade, to arouse emotion. Look also for combinations. What evidence can you find that supports your ideas? What is the main theme or focus? Summarize in your own words.
3) Point of View or Voice (Who) Who is speaking? Who is the audience? Is the speaker the “voice” of the writer or one of the characters? 4) Setting (Where and When) What clues are there to the place and time of the writing? Find specific examples for support. How does setting affect the theme? 5) Style (How) This includes structure and tone. What kinds of words does the author use? Is there dialogue? Is it distinctive? Look for the way the author uses punctuation and sentence patterns. What kinds of imagery are used? What is the tone or mood of the piece? How is it achieved? How does the tone relate to the theme or focus? Keeping the above points in mind let’s interpret the following prose text. Bonsai Life The moment I see letters waiting for me on the doorstep when I return from work, I can’t contain my excitement. It’s almost as if I’m face to face with my near and dear ones and they are speaking affectionately to me. Instantly the exhaustion of office work vanishes and my heart grows light. Instead of entering the kitchen muttering, ‘Oh no, Oh God’– which is what I usually do when I come back tired – I feel like singing a song, humming a tune, making a nice cup of coffee and savouring each sip. What is more, the sight of inland letters or envelopes in a familiar hand gives me the energy and enthusiasm to quickly make and eat some pakodas or bajjis! Even though I am lazy about writing letters I love to receive one from some place or the other, every day. This is an unexpected letter. If my Akkayya, who doesn’t normally write, went out of her way to write a letter, there has to be a reason. As I open the letter, I am a little apprehensive. I hope it is not some bad news. Actually, when things are fine, no one bothers to write . . . Ammalu!
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You must be very surprised to receive my letter. You would be even more surprised if I were to tell you that your Baavagaru and I are coming to your place. We have been planning for quite a while to visit Kasi and Haridwar. We have now found the time. I hope you won’t find our visit inconvenient. . . “My dear, it seems Akkayya and Baavagaru are coming over,” I said to my husband excitedly. “Is that true? When? Where is it? Give me the letter,” he said and pulled the letter from my hand. I went into the kitchen to get the coffee and other things ready. Akkayya and Baavagaru were coming to this city and our home for the first time since my marriage. I had looked forward to their visit all these years. They had never left their little village to go anywhere. Using children, cattle, cooking etc., as excuses, they had always avoided moving out. Under such circ*mstances, imagine their coming to our house and to this big city! Akkayya is not as educated as me. By “not as educated” I mean Nannagaru did not let her study after Class Five. Of what use was education for a girl? Those were the days when people thought it was enough if a girl was able to keep the washerman’s accounts. A decade later, when I was born, there wasn’t much debate as to whether a girl should have education or not. I was lucky that my father changed with the times. He didn’t even hesitate to send me to college. No girl who is well educated can be satisfied with staying at home, being a housewife and looking after the household after marriage. She would want to put her education to good use and achieve something in life. I too was driven by the same desire. Even though my husband had a good job, I took up one as well. Because Akkayya was not educated, she was married to a man from the village. Though my Baavagaru was educated, his ideals made him choose agriculture as his profession and he settled down in the village to cultivate his land. Akkayya grew accustomed to the village life. Akkayya brought so many things – cucumber, gongura, drumsticks, appadums, vadiyams and coconuts. “I hope you don’t mind, I have brought you all these things, like Kuchela. I don’t know whether you’ll like them or not,” she said, rather hesitantly. “Why do you say that? You’ve actually brought all the things we wanted! We don’t get these things here. If your Maridi has gongura pulsu, cucumber pappu and drumstick charu he feels as elated as if he has had a sumptuous feast! With my office work, I am unable to make appadams and vadiyams. Even if I have some free time, I am too lazy to do such work. You know me, don’t you?’ I said with a laugh. ‘That’s true, but by the time you come back from office you must be dead tired. How can you then prepare appadams and vadiyams and make idlis and dosas? I don’t know how you are able to manage work at home and in the office,” Akkayya consoled me.
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“What a wretched job! Sometimes, I feel like giving it up. You know, people say, solve your problems at home before you solve those outside. To neglect work at home and look after office work is an uphill task for a woman,” I said, speaking from experience. “Don’t think like that, Ammalu. How fortunate you are! Touchwood! You’ve studied well, have a job like a man and are earning very well. You don’t have to beg anyone for anything. You are able to lead a dignified life unlike us who have to depend on our husbands even for a few paise worth of karivepaku,” said Akkayya. The grass is greener on the other side, I thought to myself. “What’s your daughter doing now?” I asked, changing the topic. “She’s in her final year at school. If by God’s grace she clears her exams, I am determined to send her to college. Your Baavagaaru doesn’t really like the idea of sending her to the next town and putting her in a hostel. But I don’t like to keep a girl at home without educating her. Isn’t what I’m going through enough? In these times, if a woman doesn’t have a degree, she’ll come to nothing. Without it, she will have to live under her husband’s thumb, like a scorpion under a slipper,” she said. When we interpret the above text using the criteria we listed out earlier we can write our interpretation of the above text as following. Bonsai life' by Abburi chaya Devi is a plea for educating girls, thereby freeing them from their 'bonsai life'. The story is of a woman, lovingly called 'Ammalu' by his elder sister, who lives in Delhi. Ammalu is excited when she receives a letter from her sister (Akkaya) informing her of her visit to Delhi. Ammalu is an educated lady who works in Delhi. Her sister, on the other hand, was not educated. She had been married young to a man from the village. As the two sisters exchange notes about each other, they realize how true the saying ' the grass is always greener on the other side ' is. Akkayya yearns for the financial independence of working woman in a city whereas Ammalu longs for the luxuries of village life. Ammalu takes her sister around the house. Akkayya is shocked to see turayi and pomegranate plants in a pot and questions about them. Ammalu explains that they are 'bonsai' plants; bonsai being the Japanese way of growing trees in flowerpots. Akkaya doesn't like the idea. As they discuss about bonsai, there is a storm and Ammalu rushes to bring the bonsai plants under the canopy. Akkayya looks at the huge tree outside the house that provided shelter to many. Akkayya saw many people taking shelter from the storm under the huge tree. The bonsai, on the other hand, could not provide protection to anyone. In fact, it had to be brought under the canopy so that it would not be destroyed. A comparison is made between a woman who is uneducated and hence dependent on others and the bonsai plant, which is nevertheless, beautiful and delicate, but of no use. Ammalu felt like freeing the bonsai plants from their flower pots. The story is thus a plea to provide education for woman to empower them and make financially independent.
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4.14
USING LITERATURE ACROSS CURRICULUM
There are many advantages of using children's literature, including picture books as tools to teach concepts across the curriculum: in science, social studies, mathematics, art, and other curriculum topics. Some of them are: 1) Trade books (versus textbooks) are multi-dimensional, not one-dimensional. (Trade book is a book published by a commercial publisher and intended for general readership.) The authors and editors of textbooks (non-fiction in nature) must be concerned about such things as achieving specific curricular objectives, accuracy, readability, balance, bias, etc.. They are often very "ordered" and standardized in format. The authors of trade books, both fiction and non-fiction titles, do not necessarily have the same formatting constraints placed on them, which opens up many creative and surprising possibilities. 2) Classroom management of curriculum - Most teachers are frustrated by the lack of time to cover all the curriculum topics. Assuming a teacher covers more than one curriculum subject, integrating curriculum topics such as literature and science, for instance, can save more time than trying to teach the concepts separately. 3) Universal literature themes - Good quality literature, including picture books, contains universal themes that make them, in many ways, "ageless:" they can be enjoyed by student of all ages. The use of literature to teach curricular concepts helps relate the concept being taught to real-life situations, bringing the concept into the child's world. 4) Motivational - Approaching a topic from a different "angle" through literature, including picture books, can increase student motivation to learn. A good story is a strong teaching tool, which gives a concrete, "contained" perspective for learning or thinking about a topic. Good literature books captivate the child's interest and information is rapidly absorbed through them. 5) Picture books: Text and illustration interplay in a good picture book, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The pictures do more than reflect the text, but serve to move the story forward in a way that the text can not do alone. The interplay of text and picture in a good picture book engage the reader on a deeper level, "on both an intellectual and an emotional level. Picture books are “bicultural, that they share qualities of books and the visual arts”. For instance, “reading” a picture book engages children in both the visual and the language arts. “Because of the many parallels between art and language arts, learning becomes connected and cumulative when the two disciplines are correlated in the classroom”. 6) Multiple learning styles - Trade books, both fiction and non-fiction, as well as specialty books such as pop-up and activity books, make use of more than the linguistic learning style. The visual and tactile element in some of these books capture the interest of reluctant readers, and those whose strength is not necessarily learning though words alone.
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7) Different/imaginative approach - The use of literature in teaching any subject can be a new, creative, and imaginative way to approach a topic. There is often a "surprise" element in literature, which can lead to many teachable moments, and unexpected higher level thinking opportunities. 8) Concrete examples - The simple but imaginative worlds within picture books, and all literature, can provide students with an excellent and motivating introduction to complex curriculum topics. It is a great way to introduce a topic, especially to struggling learners in that it allows you to work from concrete, "simple" examples, before moving onto more abstract and complex examples. It is a great "hook" into a lesson, and is easy to read in a short amount of time. 9) Fiction: providing the reader a new "voice" -- Excellent fiction titles can often stir up an emotional response that may be lacking in some non-fiction titles. It can provide the reader with a new point of view that may create a sense of empathy for the characters in the story. These responses can often lead the reader to become engaged with a topic, which can be expanded upon by connecting these responses with related curriculum topics in the classroom. 10) Fun factor - The last reason to use literature across curriculum is the most important one. The use of good literature in imaginative ways, to teach curriculum topics, makes learning fun! As stated above, many literature titles, both fiction and non-fiction, celebrate the often complex dance between the visual and written forms of communication, two very powerful ways of communication we use every day.
4.15
IDENTIFICATION OF LITERARY FEATURES IN A GIVEN TEXT
Prose: Prose—words in their best order; Poetry—the best words in their best order. ----Samuel Taylor Coleridge Prose is representative of several forms of communication. It is considered the ordinary language used in speech or writing. Prose has no intentional structural meter and, as such, dramatic works, fiction, nonfiction and correspondence are all considered prose. Prose is organized by grouping complete sentences into paragraphs. Prose can be further sub-categorized according to structure or subject matter. Common structural classifications include novels, novellas, short stories, memoirs and biographies. Common subject matter categories, commonly referred to as genre include, but are not limited to, romance, comedy and horror. These two sub-categories are not necessarily separate with prose works classified by their structure and genre.
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Prose is performed in the shape of dramas and media broadcasts. Dramas, commonly known as plays, are recorded predominantly in prose dialogue and enacted by actors on the stage. Television and radio broadcasts similarly have a prose script from which they report. Nonfiction is a broad spectrum of prose with personal as well as objective accounts. Testimonials, philosophy, journals and a range of other physical records are written in prose. Nonfiction is generally written to pass on knowledge. Read the following prose text and observe how it is analyzed. OLIVER ASKS FOR MORE The room in which the boys were fed, was a large stone hall, with a copper at one end: out of which the master, dressed in an apron for the purpose, and assisted by one or two women, ladled the gruel at mealtimes. Of this festive composition each boy had one porringer, and no more--except on occasions of great public rejoicing, when he had two ounces and a quarter of bread besides. The bowls never wanted washing. The boys polished them with their spoons till they shone again; and when they had performed this operation (which never took very long, the spoons being nearly as large as the bowls), they would sit staring at the copper, with such eager eyes, as if they could have devoured the very bricks of which it was composed; employing themselves, meanwhile, in sucking their fingers most assiduously, with the view of catching up any stray splashes of gruel that might have been cast thereon. Boys have generally excellent appetites. Oliver Twist and his companions suffered the tortures of slow starvation for three months: at last they got so voracious and wild with hunger, that one boy, who was tall for his age, and hadn't been used to that sort of thing (for his father had kept a small cook-shop), hinted darkly to his companions, that unless he had another basin of gruel per diem, he was afraid he might some night happen to eat the boy who slept next him, who happened to be a weakly youth of tender age. He had a wild, hungry eye; and they implicitly believed him. A council was held; lots were cast who should walk up to the master after supper that evening, and ask for more; and it fell to Oliver Twist. The evening arrived; the boys took their places. The master, in his cook's uniform, stationed himself at the copper; his pauper assistants ranged themselves behind him; the gruel was served out; and a long grace was said over the short commons. The gruel disappeared; the boys whispered each other, and winked at Oliver; while his next neighbours nudged him. Child as he was, he was desperate with hunger, and reckless with misery. He rose from the table; and advancing to the master, basin and spoon in hand, said: somewhat alarmed at his own temerity: 'Please, sir, I want some more.' The master was a fat, healthy man; but he turned very pale. He gazed in stupified astonishment on the small rebel for some seconds, and then clung for support to the copper. The assistants were paralysed with wonder; the boys with fear. 'What!' said the master at length, in a faint voice. 'Please, sir,' replied Oliver, 'I want some more.' The master aimed a blow at Oliver's head with the ladle; pinioned him in his arm; and shrieked aloud for the beadle. The board were sitting in solemn conclave, when Mr. Bumble rushed into the room in great excitement, and addressing the gentleman in the high chair, said,
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'Mr. Limbkins, I beg your pardon, sir! Oliver Twist has asked for more!' There was a general start. Horror was depicted on every countenance. 'For MORE!' said Mr. Limbkins. 'Compose yourself, Bumble, and answer me distinctly. Do I understand that he asked for more, after he had eaten the supper allotted by the dietary?' 'He did, sir,' replied Bumble. 'That boy will be hung,' said the gentleman in the white waistcoat. 'I know that boy will be hung.' Nobody controverted the prophetic gentleman's opinion. An animated discussion took place. Oliver was ordered into instant confinement; and a bill was next morning pasted on the outside of the gate, offering a reward of five pounds to anybody who would take Oliver Twist off the hands of the parish. In other words, five pounds and Oliver Twist were offered to any man or woman who wanted an apprentice to any trade, business, or calling. 'I never was more convinced of anything in my life,' said the gentleman in the white waistcoat, as he knocked at the gate and read the bill next morning: 'I never was more convinced of anything in my life, than I am that that boy will come to be hung.' As I purpose to show in the sequel whether the white waistcoated gentleman was right or not, I should perhaps mar the interest of this narrative (supposing it to possess any at all), if I ventured to hint just yet, whether the life of Oliver Twist had this violent termination or no. INTERPRETATION OF THE LESSON ‘OLVER WANTS MORE’: This first section of Oliver Twist is especially focused on the failures of the systems in place to take care of the poor and helpless - particularly orphans. The narrator, with his deft use of sarcasm, shows how little those entrusted with Oliver's care actually care about him (or any of their charges, for that matter). Most of those put in this position of guardianship are utterly convinced of their moral superiority to their paupers, just by virtue of their not being paupers, and so they consider it their duty to keep the paupers in their place. A similar tendency, to raise oneself up by stepping on the head of those below, is elucidated in this section. The clearest example is Noah Claypole, who, as a charity-boy, is often made fun of for his occupation and put down by other boys; this does not lead him to have a sympathetic view of Oliver. Instead, he takes his first chance to be better than someone else, and bullies Oliver as much as he can. Similarly, characters like Mr. Bumble and Mrs. Sowerberry seem especially intent on making sure that those below them stay below them, and treat them with disdain and cruelty. This involves, among other things, underfeeding them, which comes to symbolize the institutional cruelty to the poor in the novel. It is this underfeeding which leads to Oliver asking for more, and this act, this complaining about the malnourishment, is so against everything that the board of guardians stands for that it leads to their complete misunderstanding of Oliver's character - a misunderstanding that follows Oliver for a good portion of the story. Oliver's outrage at Noah's insult to his mother is blamed on his being overfed: for the poor to receive any more than the bare minimum nutritionally is not only a nuisance to those who care for them, but is seen as morally wrong.
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The importance that food takes on in this opening section of the novel recalls the way that government policies toward the poor can alter society's attitudes. The New Poor Law Amendment of 1834, to which in part Dickens wrote Oliver Twist as a response, did indeed place a premium on conserving resources in caring for the poor, and provided workhouses with several choices for menus, all of which involved very limited portions. Dickens shows this policy not only harming the poor in its enactment, but also hurting them because its passage justified it as a moral stance, which permeated society. This section also emphasizes the powerlessness of children, especially children without parents to stand up for them. Oliver is completely at the mercy of the board and Mr. Bumble, who fail to understand him. The reader sees Oliver as a meek, good-hearted, kind and helpless boy, while the board and Mr. Bumble, and later Mrs. Sowerberry, saw him as intentionally vicious, ungrateful, and greedy. Whenever Oliver tries to speak to anyone to defend himself or voice a desire, he is misheard, ignored, or almost intentionally misunderstood. Thus, not only does Oliver have no legal or physical power, he does not even have a voice. Thus Dickens brought out the crucial sociological problems into light through this novel. Poetry: Poetry is what in a poem makes you laugh, cry, prickle, be silent, makes your toe nails twinkle, makes you want to do this or that or nothing, makes you know that you are alone in the unknown world, that your bliss and suffering is forever shared and forever all your own. Dylan Thomas Poetry has certain features in it. Let’s now see some of the main features of poetry. Rhythm Rhythm gives a poem its sound, and there are many different ways that rhythm is used, and lots of elements in poetry that are related to rhythm. Stress / Accent A line of poetry is filled with syllables. When a syllable is given emphasis, it is called a stressed syllable. Stress is the emphasis given to the syllable. Example: “water” has two syllables: wa – ter. The first syllable (“wa”) is the stressed syllable – it is pronounced with more emphasis than the second syllable (“ter”), which is the unstressed syllable. Foot A foot is a combination of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry. There are many different combinations, but some are more popular than others. The stressed syllables are marked with the symbol ('), the unstressed, with the symbol ( ). Iamb: A foot with two syllables, one that is not stressed and one that is, in that order. Trochee: A foot with two syllables, this time with one that is stressed and one that is not.
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Spondee: A foot with two syllables, both of which are stressed. Anapest: A foot with three syllables, two stressed syllables followed by one unstressed syllable Dactyl: A foot with three syllables, one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables Meter This is the number of feet that is in a line of poetry. A line of poetry can have any number of feet, and can have more than one type of foot. There are some meters that are used more often than others. Monometer: a line with 1 foot Dimeter: A line with 2 feet Trimeter: A line with 3 feet Tetrameter: A line with 4 feet Pentameter: A line with 5 feet Hexameter: A line with 6 feet Heptameter: A line with 7 feet Octameter: a line with 8 feet If a line of poetry has 5 feet, and those 5 feet are all iambs, you have a line of poetry that is called iambic pentamter. This is the most common metric pattern in formal poetry. Example: How do / I love / thee? Let / me count / the ways. (“Sonnet 43” Elizabeth Barrett Browning) POETRY’S FORM There is no one way to write a poem. In fact, there are many ways, and many different forms! Sometimes it is the meter of the poem that gives you the form, sometimes it’s the content, and sometimes it is the organization of it. Stanza A group of lines in a poem. A stanza is similar to the paragraph. Quatrain A stanza of four lines Couplet A stanza of two lines Ballad A ballad is a poem that usually tells a story that is similar to a folktale. It is often written in quatrains, and usually in lines that are iambic tri-meter. Elegy A poem that is sad and thoughtful, and often said in lament of a person who has died. Epic A long narrative poem.
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Lyric A poem that expresses the personal mood, feeling, or meditation of a single speaker. Narrative A poem that tells a story. Sonnet In general, sonnets have 14 lines. However, there are many different types of sonnets. Read the following poem followed by some interpretation. The Earthen Goblet by Harindranath Chattopadyaya O silent goblet! Red from head to heel, How did you feel When you were being twirled Upon the potter's wheel Before the potter gave you to the world! 'I felt a conscious impulse in my clay To break away From the great potter's hand That burned so warm, I felt a vast Feeling of sorrow to be cast Into my present form. 'Before that fatal hour That saw me captive on the potter's wheel And cast into his crimson goblet sleep, I used to feel The fragrant friendship of a little flower Whose root was in my bosom buried deep.' 'The potter has drawn out the living breath of me And given me a form which is death of me, My past unshapely natural stage was best With just one flower flaming through my breast.'
Chattopadhyay's poetry usually deals with nature and natural way of life. The poem is written as a dialogue between the poet and the goblet. He wants to know how the goblet felt when it was taken from the earth and shaped into a goblet. The answer of the goblet which forms the next three stanzas of the poem is tinged with a sense of sadness and helplessness.
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"I felt a conscious impulse in my clay, to break away" The goblet likes its former life with nature: "With just one flower flaming through my breast" These lines evoke the warm and beautiful relationship between the goblet and the flower. The warmth of this relationship is further emphasized by the alliteration of "f" sound in: "Fragrant friendship" and the alliteration in: "My bosom buried deep". The poet draws a contrast between the former life of the goblet with nature. 4.16
CONCLUSION
Though there is a great need to make students go through many books, due to the advancement of information technology and busy life schedule, they are not spending more time on reading books. They are reading is limited to curricular text-books. Only a few children are reading English literature. Even as student- teachers we are reading very few books. We should encourage our students to read and to write short stories, comics, cartoons and novels. Students need some guidance from teachers while writing poetry. We need not insist on the metrical values etc, as the students are young learners. 4.16. Assignment 1) What do you understand by the term ‘literature’? Why should we study literature? 2) What are different types of language texts? What are their features? 3) What do you mean by Schema and its use in studying literature? 4) What is the ‘Readers’ Response Theory’ about? What are the principles of that theory? 5) What are the advantages of using literature across curriculum? 6) What are the distinct features of a prose text and a poetry text? 7) What measures do you suggest to improve the habit of literature reading among the high school students? 8) How do you make use of different literary texts in your English language classroom? 4.18
PROJECT WORKS
1) Take any English Text-book from 6-8 classes and identify different literary genre in it. 2) Collect samples for different literary texts and paste them in your records. Write your comments on those texts. 3) Take any poem from 8th class text-book and interpret it.
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4.19
REFERENCES
1. https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-literature-740531 2. http://ijellh.com/role-language-human-life 3.http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-language-and-vs-literature/ 4.http://www.brighthubeducation.com/homework-help-literature/100292-the-fivemain-genres-of-literature/ 5. www.ecoledz.net/uploads/3/1/0/6/31060631/types_of_texts..pdf 6. https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/literature.html 7. http://examples.yourdictionary.com/descriptive-text-examples.html#370QeflxomYjCExD.99 8. http://study.com/academy/lesson/imperative-sentence-definition-examples.html 9. http://www.ncsu.edu/project/lancet/third_grade/outerspace.pdf 10. https://www.google.co.in/webhp?sourceid=chrominstant&ion=1&espv=2&ie =UTF- 8#q=language+features+of+expository+text&* 11. https://www.mesacc.edu/~paoih30491/ArgumentEssay1.pdf 12. Richard - A Teacher's Introduction to Reader-Response Theories.NCTE Teacher's Introduction Series. National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana,Ill. 13. https://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/literacy/lit_ins3.html 14. https://www.google.co.in/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv= 2&ie=UTF-8#q=What+is+a+schema+in+reading+comprehension?&* 15. http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/landry/ 16. documents.routledge-interactive.s3.amazonaws.com/.../Reading%20 Philosophy %20c. 17. http://10ib.pbworks.com/w/page/696220/Critical%20Analysis%20of%20Prose 18. http://e-mosaic.blogspot.in/2009/D6/bonsai -life-abburi-chaya-devi.html 19. Literature, Certificate in Teaching English by CIEFL – Hyderabad. 20. Interpretation of Literature Blocks 1- 5 – PGCTE – by CIEFL – Hyderabad. 21. www.uleth.ca/sites/default/files/integratingliteraturereasons.pdf *********
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UNIT – 5 UNDERSTANDING OF TEXTBOOKS, PEDAGOGY AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
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UNDERSTANDING OF TEXTBOOKS, PEDAGOGY AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 5.1
INTRODUCTION
It is evident that a single approach or method does not suit all learners/teachers in learning/teaching English. Every method has its own merits and limitations. In fact, any method is right at the time of its inception. The methods have come into sight according to the need of the hour. Teachers find it neither possible nor helpful to use a particular method fully or consistently. Successful teachers follow what works out practically for them and for their children in the classroom. The theory which considers the environment as the main source of learning and views all learning as a process of habit formation is known as behaviourism. The primary task of teaching in this theory is to help learners form right habits and skills. This is accompanied by a carefully controlled and repeated use of language and by deliberating grading and sequencing of teaching materials. Precise and accurate attention is considered the hall mark of good teaching. Mistakes are viewed as problems which must be immediately and effectively eliminated. The school of linguistics that shares the main beliefs of behaviouristic psychology is structural linguistics. Nativists and Interactionists believe that second language acquisition relies much more on the learner’s innate abilities than on the inputs supplied by the environment. 5.2
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the student teachers will be able to Recall the guiding principles for the development of English language textbooks at elementary stage. To familiarize the student teachers with various approaches, methods and strategies of English language teaching. Discuss the content selected, approaches followed in the textbooks. Know about the interactive and participatory approaches to teaching English. Understand the role of a teacher as a facilitator in teaching English. Familiarize themselves about the themes selected, and unit structure followed in English textbooks (classes VI-VIII). Observe the nature of the exercises provided in the textbooks. Analyse the textbook features of English textbooks (classes VI-VIII). Understand the academic standards targeted and indicators prescribed. Discuss various learning resources for effective transaction of English language at elementary level. Understand the role of ICT in teaching English for classes VI-VIII. Equip themselves with the philosophy and steps of Action Research in English classroom. Explore different avenues for their professional development as English teachers.
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5.3
PHILOSOPHY AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEXTBOOKS:
Richards (1998: 125) says "The most commonly found elements in second and foreign language classrooms around the world are ‘teachers’, ‘learners’, and ‘textbooks’. While the roles of teachers, teaching, and learners have been the focus of a vast body of discussion and research over the years, much less attention has been given to textbooks. Yet in many schools and language programs the textbooks used in classrooms are the curriculum. If one wants to determine the objectives of a language program, the kind of syllabus being used, the skills being taught, the content the students will study, and the assumptions about teaching and learning that the course embodies, it is often necessary to look no further than the textbooks used in the program itself." There are great teachers who can do away with textbooks and do a great job. But for many an Indian teacher, a textbook is an essential part of English language teaching. It saves time, gives direction to lessons, and facilitates a wide variety of activities in the classroom. A good textbook, for a teacher with limited language proficiency is often a good tool to improve his/her own language competence. The way teachers say ‘I like this textbook’ or ‘I don’t like this textbook’ suggests that every teacher has some expectations about the textbook, though they differ from teacher to teacher. For the learner, an English textbook is an important thing – important to do homework, to prepare for the examinations and to learn on his/her own. The textbook is an interesting thing too, because it brings with it stories, plays, poems and some interesting pieces of information on a wide variety of topics. The way some students treasure some of their textbooks long after they have completed their studies suggests that the textbook is more than a teaching-learning medium. Keeping these in mind, the present English language textbooks in Andhra Pradesh have been developed on the following principles. The present English textbooks are developed based on of the principles of constructivism and critical pedagogy. Critical pedagogy explores the social dimension of a constructivist, child-centered and process oriented classroom. The approach to language followed here is the cognitive-interactionist approach, which conceives language as both the ‘social construct’ as well as an ‘individual construct’. The language skills are integrated and the scope for constructing different discourses is in-built in the classroom process which we call it as holistic approach.. Guiding Principles of NCF - 2005 for the development of English textbooks in Andhra Pradesh connecting knowledge to life outside the school; ensuring that learning shifts away from rote methods;
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enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of children rather than remain textbook centric, making examinations more flexible and integrated into classroom life nurturing an over-riding identity informed by caring concerns within the democratic polity of the country Recommendation of RTE - 2009 regarding Textbooks Conformity with constitutional values. All-round development of the child. Building of the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent. Development of physical and mental abilities to the fullest extent. Learning through activities, discovery and exploration in a child friendly and child centered manner, the child’s mother tongue serving as far as possible as the medium of instruction. Curriculum to address diversities and various levels of children as a result of mainstreaming the out of school children / dropouts in age specific grades. Making the child free from fear, trauma and anxiety and helping the child to express views freely, without punishments, child abuse etc. Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation of child understanding of knowledge and the ability to apply it. APSCF 2011 – Guiding Principles Keeping the potential of the child to learn always in focus. Respecting the systems of knowledge such as languages children bring to school. Connecting knowledge to life outside the school; children should not feel that what they are learning at school has no relevance to their lives. Ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods and the focus should be on interactions, project work, analysis, etc. Enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of children rather than remain textbook centric. Making examinations more flexible and integrated into classroom life; more focus on assessment for learning than assessment of learning. Promoting social constructivism, issue-based curriculum and critical pedagogy across curricular areas. Nurturing towards flora and fauna and respect for bio-diversity and social diversity, respect to the work shall be promoted as a part of school curriculum. Locating classroom practices in the languages and cultures of children. 5.3.1
Features of English Textbooks The content selected should match the cognitive levels and socio-cultural background of children, and uphold and encourage all the secular values enshrined in the constitution. They need to be sensitive to perspectives of equity (gender and societal) and harmony (between humans, and between humans and nature).
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The topics should reflect local arts such as Burra katha, Voggu katha, Hari katha, etc.; local customs, culture and traditions; and provide opportunities for children to talk about them using their own languages along with English. They should contain good narratives which can be used to give the richest kind of linguistic input to the learners. Lessons should be based on a wide variety of discourses like, songs, stories, poems, conversations, autobiographies, essays, letters etc., which lead to thought provoking questions that sensitize children to various issues, and in the process help them develop their language competence. The lessons should represent different regions, ages, interests, cultures, people, and rouse interest among children to read extensively. They should have language tasks such as extending poems (adding lines) and stories; concluding stories; writing conversations; puppetry; dramatization; mono action; reviews; descriptions; translations; project works; riddles; cultural songs; proverbs; idioms etc. They should have spaces to promote individual, group, and whole class activities. The language tasks (priority should be given to self-learning tasks) should lead to observation, exploration, discovery, and research. They may also consist of quiz, matrix, puzzles, language games etc. Enough space should be allocated in the textbooks to enable the learner to record his/her self assessment and answers to language tasks. They should have a good glossary, cross references, references to other resources, and an index of vocabulary and language items. Printing and paper should be of high quality. They should be suitable for the assessment procedures in vogue.
5.3.2 THE NEW PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEXTBOOKS: The recent trends and developments have proposed a shift in language teaching in the following dimensions. the shift in approach to language and language learning. the shift in academic standards. the shift in classroom process. the shift in assessment. the shift in the role of the teacher, learner. the shift in societal needs 5.4
CONTENT, APPROACHES AND METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE
An approach forms the basis for the methods and methods in turn give rise to techniques and strategies. There have been different approaches and methods in teaching/learning English language to young learners, based on both behaviourist and cognitive theories. Each theory has its own merits and demerits. Classroom teaching can be done effectively by integrating various strategies to suit needs of the students. The major approaches and popular methods of English
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language teaching/learning have been thoroughly dealt with in Paper-IV of D. El. Ed. course of this year, under ‘Pedagogy of English at Primary level. The other prominent methods/ approaches which are useful in the classroom transaction are discussed below. 5.5.
INTERACTIONIST AND PARTICIPATORY METHODS:
Interactionists take the cognitive view of learning. They believe that second language acquisition relies much more on the learner’s innate abilities than on the inputs supplied by the environment. Interactionist refers to a person who believes that successful second language acquisition is a product of meaningful interaction between internal and external factors. The former mainly refers to the learner’s innate language learning capacity; the later to the instruction received by him/her. Taking its cues from the humanist’s work on the active and emotional aspect of the learner’s personality, the Interactionist Approach seeks to build a learning environment free from stress and anxiety. The role of the teacher is to create a conducive, nonthreatening environment in which learners use their inner resources. Participatory teaching approach is a form of a reflective teaching approach which is sometimes termed as interactive teaching method or learner centered teaching method. This method stresses the subjectivity of learners and the self construction of knowledge. It is a shift from a belief that learners are empty plate who are supposed to be imparted with knowledge (teach concept) to a belief that learners can construct knowledge and learn on their own if properly guided. Participatory methods expect a high degree of activity and personal involvement of participants in the learning process. They are designed only for smaller groups of participants, but their advantage is that they encourage better retention of what is learnt. They belong to the contemporary/modern methods of teaching. In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life situation. When done well, role plays increase the participants’ self-confidence, give them the opportunity to understand or even feel empathy for other people’s viewpoints or roles, and usually end with practical answers, solutions or guidelines. However, role plays can be time-consuming and their success depends on the willingness of participants to take active part. Some trainees may feel a role play is too exposing, threatening or embarrassing. This reluctance may be overcome at the outset by careful explanation of the objectives and the outcome. Some role plays can generate strong emotions amongst the participants. It is, therefore, essential that a role play is followed by a thorough debriefing. This provides the opportunity for the trainer and the participants to raise and assess new issues. Role plays are useful for exploring and improving interviewing techniques and examining the complexities and potential conflicts of group meetings. They help participants to consolidate different lessons in one setting and are good energizers. The main purpose of using interactive learning approach for developing interactive ESL listening skills is to create a classroom environment where learners have optimal opportunities to communicate and construct ESL learning. The methods springing from both progressive education and critical pedagogy support the theory that a democratic classroom will lead to more engaged students. Asking of questions either by teachers or students is found to consistently maintain a significant role in the teaching-learning process. Such questions initiate small talk and lead to a wide range of positive outcomes including: heightened levels of student
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preparedness for lessons, assessment of prior knowledge and students’ perceived learning, motivating students to share ideas in both formal and casual conversation, assessing teacher immediacy, and providing instrumental feedback to students in interpersonal skills. This means that questions have a positive impact on students’ academic practices and are crucial elements for creating a positive classroom environment. Teacher talk and teacher’s questions: Teacher talk and teachers’ questions elicit students’ use of English through speech production, which develops their ESL listening capabilities. Questions provide teachers with feedback regarding how well and how much students learned as well as what needs to be re-taught. The Participatory approach is under the umbrella of Content-Based Instruction (CBI) in that it uses topics for specific purposes. The themes derive from real issues that affect students’ daily lives where language learning is used as a vehicle to solve social problems. There are various activities that can be incorporated in this teaching strategy which aim to develop all language domains in the learning process. According to Auerbach (as cited in Ross, 1995), learners are also encouraged to take ownership of their learning as well as collaborate with the teacher, including participating in small and whole group activities for learning to be meaningful. However, in the participatory approach meaning precedes form. A classroom using a participatory approach is different from many teacher-fronted classrooms that have been typical in language learning setting. Participatory approach, through the concept of Freire, opposes the old "banking method" of teaching where the teacher acts as depositor of information and students act as recipients. Unlike the preceding methods, participatory approach utilizes a two-way transaction of learning. In this method, the teacher and students collaborate with each other with the teacher acting as a guide and facilitator. Over the course of the lessons, teachers in participatory approach eventually turn over some facets of control to the students. The topics are generated based from students’ realities and previous experience which make up for an authentic and meaningful learning experience. Topics such as providing safety for women and suggesting better solutions to personal struggles and community problems are discussed allowing students to participate by expressing themselves. The students can collaborate with their teacher in finding solution to an issue that affects the community. The teacher can provide a newspaper article for an authentic experience/ material. Each student in this group has to come up with at least two possible solutions which they will later collect and brainstorm. Once they have decided which possible solutions would work best, they can proceed with either writing a letter to their local newspaper or to their village head. A classroom using a participatory approach uses two-way dialogue, problem-posing, and problem-solving strategies while using language learning as a vehicle. Problem-posing and problem-solving activities support for critical thinking and creative ways to address learners' pressing social issues. Participatory approach is more ‘process’ based than ‘product’ based in its outcome. With participatory approach, students are encouraged to work with fellow students either in pairs, small groups, or in whole groups for collective participation. Activities such as role plays, writing a letter to school board or city management staff, and other functional
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exponents using the target language and language domains make an important facet in the students learning because these are the tools that will help students liberate from their problems. The Participatory Approach is a brainchild of Brazilian language educator Paulo Freire. Freire is the author of the book "Pedagogy of the Oppressed". Many researchers have also referred to this method as the Freirean Approach to language literacy education. The goal of this method is to use language learning as a tool to provide solutions to social problems that impact learners in their daily lives. The goal of providing education is to transform students into valuable members of society, where they take active participation in helping solve social issues that confronts the community. Students are empowered to take words into action. Each social issue affects everyone in some way and the need to free from this burden is one of the tenets of participatory approach. As educators, our roles are not limited to teaching language but helping students make use of the language they are learning; that is creating social awareness pertaining to our environment in specific and in general sense. Our students have responsibilities to their societies and by teaching them language we are equipping them with the power of words that can impact their personal lives and the lives of others. By teaching language we are providing new possibilities for students to see things around them in a different perspective; we are giving them voice to express their thoughts and opinions; and we are giving them the power to act. Language is liberating. Language teaching and learning have gone a long way. Recent methods are more learner-centered which also require pro-active involvement by the learners. Language domains can be taught even in specific content-area subjects and it can be used to empower people to free themselves from the social ruts they are in. To use the language learning as a tool to provide the solution to social problems. To help the students understand social, historical or cultural factors that effects their life. To help the students to empower themselves to take decision on their own. 5.6
ROLE OF TEACHER AS A FACILITATOR
The role of teacher is changing in smart and active learning methodologies. Now teacher is as a facilitator in learning. Teaching and learning are being modified due to innovations in education. In this context, teacher's role in changing learning environment is significant. Teaching is the well known word for teachers. Teachers know the meaning of this word and know how to perform teaching. Sometimes they do not know the difference between teaching and facilitating in learning and it make a distance between the students and teachers. We have to understand the difference between “teaching” and ‘facilitating in learning” because both the words are correlated with each other. Teaching is an activity which is helping the
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student in learning. In several classes teachers go to the class, teach the students, supply the homework and do some daily routine activities and “finish”. How much do the students achieve? It is another question and it is not a matter for teacher….! Why.....? ‘To help the students in learning’ or ‘facilitate the students in learning’ is a quite fascinating and gentle concept. If teacher thinks that every student should be sound in his subject is his duty, then teaching-learning process becomes innovative, active and interesting. In our classrooms teachers have to change their attitude about teaching process. Teachers should become mentors and they should make students learn. Teaching means teacher is doing the act of teaching. Learning means students are doing the act of learning. Discussing about Active learning methodology, we find the importance of facilitating in learning. In active learning methodology, teachers help the students in learning. Thus the entire classroom environment is changed. Actually active learning methodology focuses on helping in learning and facilitating in learning. Active learning methodologies include several activities in classroom; such as reading, making mind maps and group presentation and engage the student whole time. Active learning methodologies are very effective to find out students creativity and talent. Active learning methodologies are very smart methodologies very helpful to students in learning. Active learning methodologies and active learning classroom techniques provide very smart teaching learning opportunities to teachers. If a teacher is able to create an active learning environment in his class, s/he has to help the students in learning in various ways. Active learning methodologies are able to make teaching very smart and easy. Teachers may use collaborative learning and try to do an exciting experiment in his class. In modern learning environment, we see that ‘learning’ is a more popular word than ‘teaching’. Teachers have to understand the modern trends in teaching learning process. Teachers have to make learning more interesting and interactive, so that students may learn better. Being a facilitator in a classroom means being a successful teacher. This means that the teacher builds constructionist classes where there are mutual positive and active responses from the teacher and the learners, and even the learners among themselves within the classroom. In other words, the learners must get involved into an active participation that would be represented in argumentative discussions and teamwork activities, so that the process of learning becomes comprehensive. The teacher’s main role is as a facilitator – there to offer support and advice when needed, and to provide the necessary scaffolding and teaching of skills when necessary. 5.7 THEMES AND STRUCTURE OF THE UNIT The following themes that are compatible with NCF are suggested for making of textbooks.
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A) Core themes: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) B)
Self, family, home, friends and pets; Neighborhood and community The nation – diversity and heritage; The world-India’s neighborhood Adventure and imagination; Sports and Games; Issues relating to adolescence; Science and Technology Peace and Harmony; Travel and Tourism; Mass media; Art and Culture; Health and Reproductive health.
Other Themes:
Environment; Mystery; Fashion and shopping; Films, Media; Festivals; Education and career; People-differently abled, marginalized sections etc; Freedom; Disaster management; Crime and violence; Agrarian Issues; Social issues-Dowry, Migration, violence against women, Old age problems, Child labour, unemployment, Globalisation etc. Structure of a Unit in the English textbooks for school children The following are the components (structure) of each Unit in the English textbooks of Andhra Pradesh for school children.
Face Sheet / Trigger: Each unit starts with a picture / quotation / poem followed by some interactive questions. This is to warm-up the students and to generate genuine interest towards the theme and the reading texts in the unit. The teacher can put more number of questions that demand divergent responses from children in order to encourage them to interact more effectively. Reading Texts: Every unit consists of three reading texts (Reading A, B and C). The reading texts include different genres such as stories, narratives, biographical sketches, short plays, speeches, monologues, letters, interviews and essays related to the theme of the unit. All texts are followed by glossary, and a few comprehension questions. Questions are provided that help students think critically, reflect on what they have read, and interpret the text in their own words. Teachers should follow the suggested transaction process for reading in the classroom. Language Activities Vocabulary: This section contains some vocabulary tasks/activities/exercises. Tasks can be found like matching questions, finding synonyms / antonyms, phrasal verbs, multiple shades of
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meanings, collocations, hom*onyms, hom*ophones, hom*ographs, idioms, word-formation activities, etc. Grammar: This section contains some grammar tasks/activities/exercises. Tasks that are provided make the students explore the language. You will also find activities that help students identify grammatical errors and edit them. Writing: This section contains some written discourses that help students write conversations, descriptions, narratives / stories, messages, e-mails, SMSs, diary entries, letters, paragraph, an essays, biographical sketches, songs / poems and some other discourses. You will also find some tasks that need group discussion, collation of information from various sources, and then writing a piece collaboratively. Study Skills: This section contains some tasks/activities/exercises to improve study skills. You will find some verbal and nonverbal activities like pie charts, bar diagrams, tables, advertisem*nts, dictionary entries, route maps, etc. These activities help children interpret, analyze and transfer the data, and use the language appropriately. Listening: This section contains a listening text (given in Appendix-I) and a few tasks/activities/exercises to improve speaking and listening competencies. You will find some listening comprehension questions, and questions that call for the students’ reflection on what they have listened to. Oral Activity: This section contains some oral discourses to improve speaking competencies. In this section you will find some oral activities that encourage the children to participate in the conversations, discussions, debates, compering, presenting reports, speeches, etc. Project: This section contains one or two projects related to the theme of the unit. They require students to find resources, to work out the task i.e. collection, analysis and interpretation of data, to prepare a report and to present their findings before the class. Self -Assessment Checklist: The checklist given at the end of each unit helps the learner to assess his / her own learning. The self assessment tools reflect all the sections in a unit. This check list also helps the teacher to assess the learning levels of children. Strategy The strategy refers to the nature of teaching learning process to transact each component of a unit. The method must enable interactive teaching where children participate in the learning processes. A variety of questions like analytical, extrapolative, etc. help students to facilitate whole class discussion. Children understand concepts not by listening but by giving responses, through individual and collaborative activities. Therefore, adequate scope must be given to the children to think, question and respond in the classroom. Teacher has to develop appropriate tasks which are challenging in nature so that they will be engaged in Teaching Learning Process actively.
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Resources/ TLM Every teacher should identify appropriate resource material required to teach the subject and collect the same and keep ready for access. Teachers should think of the English around us and collect relevant material. They can also encourage students to bring different material they come across in their day to day life like news paper cuttings, different types of wrappers, pamphlets, posters, etc. The language around the child should be made a part of the TLP. Programmes and Activities Teachers have to conduct different activities/programmes based on the theme of the unit. The activities should reflect the national festivals and important days in academic year - like International Literacy Day, International Woman’s day, International Mother Tongue day etc., The activities include- quiz, essay writing, compeering, debate/ discussing, writing slogans, preparing posters, mock parliament etc. The activities / programmes should help the children in using English language fearlessly. The teacher should plan in advance for effective implementation of these activities and programmes and reflect in his/her year plan. 5.8
NATURE OF EXERCISES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
The exercises provided in the textbooks are designed and based on the academic standards targeted at elementary level. The exercises are thought provoking and challenging. They are in tune with the multiple intelligences of the children. The exercises are variety in nature and different types of tasks are provided. Previously listening tasks were not given importance, but the new text books give priority to listening tasks as well. Tasks based on authentic material are also provided. Reading comprehension tasks are also given priority. Study skills are also given due importance. 5.9
ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH TEXTBOOKS (Classes VI-VIII) Earlier, there were separate textbooks, supplementary readers and workbooks. The new English readers are designed in an integrated manner. Now, a single book which is a combination of the main reader, listening material, and workbook is prepared. The present textbooks are brought out in a multi-colour layout; whereas the earlier textbooks were in mono-colour. The previous textbooks were skill - based. Development of language skills was given priority. The content was isolated. The present text books are based on certain themes. Every unit is based on a theme that is familiar to the learners. The theme recurs throughout the unit, in all the activities of the unit. The thematic approach facilitates construction of language/knowledge along with development of language skills.
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Holistic treatment of language is taken care of in the present textbooks. Grammar and vocabulary are presented in the textbooks have relevance to the content. Whereas in the earlier textbooks, the treatment of grammar and vocabulary have no relation to the content. In the present textbooks, authentic (real) communication in writing and speaking is attempted. In the earlier textbooks, writing activity was either controlled or guided; speaking was also not authentic. The earlier text books were developed by experts. There was not much to address the problems of teachers and learners, whereas the present textbooks were the outcome of combined efforts of experts in the ELT, linguists and the textbook development committees that include teacher trainers and teachers. Present text books include activities that result in the production of language in the name of ‘Project’. The learners literally use language in solving real life problems. This helps the learners in internalizing the language. In the earlier textbooks, each unit began with a listening activity. Experience proved that, by doing so the learners were receiving the reading input a bit late. To put it in other words, listening texts were lengthy. By the time the teacher completed reading the listening text, the learners were exhausted and lost interest. The earlier textbooks had listening passages that have no contextual relevance. In the present books, the listening texts are made as contextually relevant. Hence, they are interesting to the learners. Earlier we were using two series of textbooks; one for the English medium stream and the other for the non-English medium. Now, there is a common book for these two streams. Units are thematically organized with passages meant for listening and reading. Activities focus on reading comprehension, vocabulary, grammar and study skills. Measures have been taken to help learners get familiarised with different genres such as narratives, essays, biographical sketches, plays, poems, etc. and construct them in oral as well as written forms. Though the components in a unit have been organised as listening, speaking, reading and writing, an integrated treatment of these skills has been worked out. Vocabulary and grammar exercises have been contextually designed. A few questions and activities, given under comprehension, do not target any fixed responses; instead, they demand the learners to use language authentically both orally and
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in writing. These comprehension questions and the language activities are merely stepping stones for the learners to gain proficiency in the language and as such are not goals by themselves. 5.10
ACADEMIC STANDARDS
We are familiar with performance indicators stated under the ideal domains of grammar vocabulary and the domains of skills, and discourses. In a holistic approach to language teaching/learning, none of these can be given undue prominence without putting the others at stake the others. Since assessment is inseparable from learning, it is something that has to take place at every stage of transaction. Grammar, Vocabulary and language skills can be assessed only by embedding them in discourses targeted at a certain level of transaction. Thus, the language competencies can be put in six broad categories; The six broad categories of the Academic Standards 1) Listening and Speaking 2) Reading comprehension 3) Conventions of writing 4) Vocabulary 5) Grammatical awareness 6) Creative expression (Oral and Written discourses) Grading Indicators Listening and speaking VI 1
Listen to simple instructions and directions and interactions and responds accordingly
2
Listen to a variety of discourses and responds accordingly in the classroom situations
3
*Recites rhymes/ songs and poems
4
*Tells stories, narrates experience and produces a variety of level-specific oral discourses
5
*Role-plays, enact drama /skit,
6
Pause
7
Stress
8
Pitch
9
Tone
10 Rhythm 11 Reflections of emotions (wherever relevant) 12 Tempo
VII
VIII
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Indicators for Reading Comprehension VI 1
Reads level specific pictures, cartoons, graphs, tables, etc. and decodes the ideas
2
Reads a variety of discourses with comprehension
2
Reads discourses analytically and identifies the themes and sub themes
3
Reads and develops one’s own perceptions
4
Reads critically by agreeing or disagreeing with the author
5
Reads a text from multiple perspectives
6
Refers dictionary, thesaurus, and other reference materials
VII
VIII
Indicators for conventions of writing Indicators I 1
Capitalization Approximation of use with beginning of the names and sentences
2
Uses wherever it is applicable
II
Punctuation Marks
3
Full stop
4
Comma
5
Question mark
6
Quotation marks
7
Exclamatory
8
Apostrophe
9
Hyphen
10
Colon
11
Semi-colon
12
Parenthesis
13
Space between words and sentences
14
Spelling
15
Abbreviations, acronyms
VI
VII
VIII
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16
Ellipsis
17
*Write a variety of discourses maintaining the conventions of writing and Layout
Indicators for Vocabulary and Grammatical awareness S.No
Indicators
I
Vocabulary and Word level structure (Morphology)
1
Prefixes
2
Suffixes
3
Tense forms
4
Auxiliaries and modals (be, have, do, will, shall, etc
5
aspects-progressive ,perfective and passive
6
Agreement (Person, number, gender)
7
Reflexives and reciprocals (myself, each other ...)
8
Gerunds (verbal nouns)
9
Compounding
10
Phrasal verbs
11
Collocations
II
Syntax and word level grammar
12
The structure of simple sentences
13
Subordination (adverbial connectives with when, if, as, because, since, etc.)
14
Complementation (I think that ...)
15
Conjunctions (and , or)
16
Elliptical constructions (leaving out some parts)
17
Clefts (It is true that ...
18
Relativization (the book that I bought)
19
Embedding (the book on the table ...; the dog that chased the cat that ...
20
Passivization
21
Parenthesis (Inserting units of language into a structure)
VI
VII
VIII
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III
Awareness of the structure of Phrasal categories
22
Noun phrase
23
Prepositional phrase
24
Adverbial phrase
25
Verb phrase
Caution: The competencies related to grammar and vocabulary can be assessed only in the context of oral and written discourses for which the indicators related to discourse features are also to be taken care of. Indicators for Discourse-wise Features for Creative Expressions Conversations / Dialogues Classes
Gradation of Indicators VI 1
Begin conversation – Initiation
2
Respond appropriately to the initiation
3
VII
VIII
contain one or two exchanges
4
Contain three or four exchanges
5
Express ides and feelings relevant to the context
6
Proper sequence of exchanges
7
Sustaining the conversation
8
Contextual relevance and maintaining of social norms
9
Use of discourse markers (well, precisely, etc.)
10
Dialogues required in the context of debates and discussions Coherence
11
Avoiding digression
12
Uses connectives contextually
13
Uses pronouns properly
14
Uses formulaic expressions Descriptions Classes
S.No. 1
Gradation of Indicators Describe objects/things/persons in their immediate environment and state one or two attributes
VI
VII
VIII
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Coherence 2
Does not digress
3
Uses connectives contextually
4
Uses pronouns properly
5
Sentences are relevant to the context
6
Describe objects/ things/persons creating images
7
Uses a variety of sentence forms
8
Proper sequence of ideas
9
Describe a person’s characteristics, scenic details of places
10
Includes personal reflections on the event or person
11
Uses figurative expressions about a person ,place or event Song/Rhyme/Poem Classes Grading Indicators
1
Keeps the rhythm
2
Sings the line with action
3
Follows regular structural pattern
4
Identify the rhyming words
5
Adds lines to the poem as per music and thematic grid
6
Reflection and feelings expressed are suitable to the theme
7
Adds sufficient lines relevant to the theme
8
Images, thoughts and feelings to be expressed
9
Uses figurative expressions
5.11
VI
VII
VIII
LEARNING RESOURCES FOR EFFECTIVE TRANSACTION OF LANGUAGE CURRICULUM
Since one of the goals of English language teaching is to make the child an autonomous learner by transforming language into an instrument for knowledge acquisition, children should be encouraged to learn on their own from a variety of resources. Hence a plethora of resources should be put at the disposal of the children. The resources suggested below can not only help children to learn English, but also help teachers with limited competence to improve their
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language competence, which in turn can improve the effectiveness of English language teaching/ learning processes in the classroom. class/club/school/public library textbooks of higher classes in the same stream and other streams (CBSE, ICSE) Pictorial dictionaries, learners /standard dictionaries, dictionaries of idiomatic English field-specific dictionaries such as the dictionary of biology, etc. thesauruses, encyclopedias, children’s knowledge library, ‘Tell me Why’ books, Selfhelp books, ‘Do it Yourself’ books, personality development books. big books, picture cards, reading cards, graded readers, special charts like ‘Spark Charts’. magazines like chandamama, Amar Chitra Katha in English and regional languages, newspapers in English and regional languages. children’s literature (books written for/by children) and other literary genres. bilingual texts and bilingual dictionaries appropriate to the region. talking books (books with audio CD/cassette), recorded audio/video lessons or programmes. self-learning courses through video/audio materials or interactive CDs education programames on radio and TV. encyclopedias / dictionaries / thesauruses available in electronic format English learning resources available on the world wide web like http://www askoxford.com, http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish, Wikipedia, etc. The children should also be helped to find some human resources to supplement/ complement the classroom teaching. This resource is always ignored or neglected. The learner’s kith and kin or neighbours can be a useful resource if properly identified and tapped into. English club/forum in the school can also be another important human resource. 5.12
ROLE OF ‘ICT’ IN TEACHING ENGLISH
Today science, information and technology (ICT) have left their impact on every aspects of human life. Most of the significant developments that one can observe today can be attributed to the impact of science and technology. Even in education sector we witness that technological advancement and innovations have made a visible impact and have changed a scenario. Traditional methods of imparting higher education have become less motivating. Here, technology plays an important role in creating innovation and motivation for the learners. The word ‘ICT’ includes any communication device such as computer, mobile phones, radio, television, satellite system etc. Now the role and use of technology as a tool for teaching of English language is increasing as educators have understood its ability to create both independent and collaborative learning environment in which students can learn English with much ease. The use of ICT in teaching- learning process is the need of an hour and teacher is expected to be traditional as well as innovative in his/her teaching learning process. A teacher needs to think of using technology in imparting education. The use of ICT in teaching-learning process is the need of an hour. The teacher is expected to be traditional as well as modern/innovative in his/her teaching learning process. The
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teacher must be adequately prepared to make use of information and communication technology (ICT). In the 21st century, technologies are truly communicative and interactive but the implementation is low in the language classroom. When one tries to bring about an innovation in the educational field, one needs to think of the audio-visual aids and their extensive usage in imparting education. ICT can be defined as scientific, technological and engineering based management techniques used in information storage and communication mechanism with optimal time and space utilization in comparison to other traditional methods adopted for the same. The word ‘ICT’ includes any communication device or application such as computer, mobile phones, radio, television, satellite system etc (Saxena,Jyotsana& Rai,Geeta). Today teacher can make use of these different tools of technology and can make his/her teaching innovative and interesting. Web 2.0 Applications After 2005, web 2.0 emerged. It encourages sharing between users. It includes variety of application such as blogs, social networking websites etc. Blogs are regular opinion, columns posted on the internet. The writer posts a diary entry which others can read and comment on. The learners can be encouraged to write their own blog. Social networking sites like Face book, Friendster, Bebo. There are many sharing sites like Flicker where users can post and view photos and YouTube for videos. These can be useful for language learning. A wiki is web-based environment for collaborative writing. It is useful for language learning is the record of all drafts. Access to personal computers can cause problems but mobile phone is a different type of computer that is available and convenient. Mobile phones function in many ways like the addition of texting, e-mail, recording functions etc. as computers. The main features of mobile phone-assisted language learning portability, social interactivity, connectivity, individuality and immediacy can become accessible to millions.(Vyas, Manish. A & Patel, Yogesh L). Radio and Television The radio and television are one of the most useful devices for teaching English Language. Radio and television are two important instruments for distant education. Those who fail to get admission to colleges have to continue their education through open universities. Here radio and television play vital role in the teaching of the language. We live in an age in which distance education has become order of the day. A number of good English teaching programmes are broad cast by the All India Radio, the material prepared by the CIFEL, Hyderabad and other ELTIS in India. They can be recorded and used for listing sessions in the class. The television appeals both to the ears and eyes. In radio only ear is employed with the help of both these technological devices, it is possible to teach the students the pronunciation. They may be taught to speak properly. Radio and T.V. can bring the experience of the real world into the class-room so that teaching is no duller.
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The traditional teacher of books changes his/her role to become the teacher of the real living language. Today T.V. plays many roles in advanced countries. It is a companion, entertainer and instructor. Today in our cities, most learning occurs outside the classroom. The quantity of information conveyed by T.V., Radio and Film far exceeds that which is conveyed by educational institutions. The notion that education is a process that goes on within the four walls of the classroom is also shattered. T.V. programmes can be recorded in advanced and played in the class. Language Laboratory A language laboratory is modern technological teaching aid. There are different types of language labs. These are: Language Laboratory for listening and understanding In this type, each student has a tape recorder with a head set. He simply listens and understands the material at his own speed. Here, the students get an opportunity to listen English spoken by native speaker and make them familiar with the correct pronunciation. Audio Active Laboratory This type of laboratory consists of a teacher’s console and individual head sets. A tape is played from the console. Everyone has to go at the speed of the tape. A limitation is that the students cannot proceed at their own pace. Audio-Active- Comparative language laboratory (A.A.C.) Wearing ear phones, students sit in booths with separate tape recorder to speak and listen. The teacher is provided with a console which permits him/her to listen or speak to each student. It is an effective technological device to teach pronunciation and intonation. Government of Gujarat has also set up DELL (Digital Education and Language Laboratory) in Government and Grant-in aid colleges across the state. The complete infrastructure including furniture, computer system, server, LAN, software, AV facility is provided. Films Films present the reading material in the form of stories. With the help of this aid, it is to present and systematic and orderly knowledge of the subject. Knowledge acquired through films has a lasting effect. We can show to the students in the class-room, the Plays of Shakespeare while teaching English Literature.
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Overhead Projector It is a useful alternative to chalk board. Writings or pictures on transparencies are projected on a screen. It saves time by preparing the materials in advance. Proper infrastructure facilities are required for the use of such equipments. Thus, teachers can make teaching process innovative and informative by using different technological devices as mentioned above. If we use these tools wisely, teaching of English Language will become interesting and will boost student’s motivation, commitment and engagement. In order to prepare students to function in the digital age, we must ensure that language curriculum incorporates the necessary technological literacy skills. Thus, … Using ICT in schools is not a new concept. A large majority of schools now have access to the computer in the classroom. When planning a lesson, the teacher should be able to incorporate ICT. A teacher can use power point presentations and interactive CDs while presenting topics. Video presentations and films can also make instruction less tedious and the content more comprehensive. The combination of text and graphics can be a powerful aid for structuring information. This is also true with required to the presentation constructed by children themselves. Children can work, individually or in small groups for the construction of slides, selection of interactive animated stories etc. Digital cameras can prove effective not only for documentation of events but for capturing a series of pictures related to the textual content. Children who are not so smart in presenting ideas orally or in writing can convey their ideas through images / shots on a camera. Video presentations of documenting, films and even short clipping can serve as a media for generating ideas in an English classroom. There are excellent opportunities for children to develop collaboration skills if they are guided to create short video presentations. The use of the interactive white board is another device which will serve to increase the interest of the child. Downloading of internet information is something that every teacher should exploit to the maximum. The children too need to be guided in the safe use of the internet to search relevant information for learning purposes. School blogs can be set up and made use of to show ideas, reflections and literary products of the children, to pass along stories, poems and articles written by them and also extra information on relevant subjects. ICT at different levels Lower primary level At early years usage of ICTs can be emphasised:
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To enable playful interactions with words and sounds To encourage enjoyment of ‘playing’ with English language To familiarise the sounds of English. To introduce Songs, rhythms and patterns that plays a significant role at this stage. To provide chances for repetition of sounds, and basic association of words with familiar objects. Upper primary level At this level, we are likely to see a continuation of these play-based activities. Here ICT can be used . . . To gain access to authentic written materials via the web. To allow teachers access to entertainment resources such as music videos, films, television, computer games etc. To enable learners to gain familiarity with use of language in a variety of different contexts. To make use of DVD resources that is highly loaded with vocabulary and structures and supplementary materials. To create a more user-friendly classroom. To introduce e-mail communication and online chat between children in our schools and children in English speaking countries. Why ICT training needed for student teacher? Student teachers will be able to monitor their own progress in ICT through selfassessment. We can assess the motivational impact of ICT Access to popular music, video and other entertainment resources is likely to encourage student teachers in teaching. Whole class teaching using language games on whiteboards with multiple input devices can prove engaging and enable student teachers to bring all learners up to similar levels of expertise. Communicating with ‘real’ speakers of English through video-conferencing and internet communications makes the student teacher more confident. Self directed and distance learning using ICT may play a significant role in enhancing the language ability of student teachers. The young people are likely to be using the internet for self-directed tests and language. acquisition exercises, interspersed with feedback from experts based at a distance, who may provide support through telephone, e-mail or video-conference facilities. Children who are focusing only on verbal communication skills might be put in contact with others in the same area working on the same skills; using mobile phones
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or online chat resources, they will have the opportunity to practise these skills, with perhaps one online moderator acting as facilitator.
Strategies of Using ICT Preparing a list of websites themselves and noting down in the reflective journal Preparation of digital portfolio. Teacher educator asks student teachers to select a unit/theme from the lower primary level, prepares a story in simple sentences. Download visuals suitable for the story. Place the visuals in the relevant events in the story. 5.13
ACTION RESEARCH
Any practicing teacher cannot go without action research. We all do action research, but many of us do not record and keep evidence fur further research. Classroom planning may not go as we wish all the time. Often, we come across some situations that upset us and obstruct the smooth progress of classroom transaction process. There may be many reasons behind this which include the use of faulty methods, lack of proper planning, child’s background knowledge, lack of ambience, problems with communication, lack of recourses, proper accommodation etc. Apart from academic issues, there may be administrative issues like entrusting other works, official duties etc. Since we are all professionals, we have to find solutions for all these problems sooner or later only by conducting Action Research. Stephen M. Corey defines ‘Action Research’ is the process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decision and action for improving their current practices. Kurt Lewis defines “Action Research is applying scientific thinking to real life problems (classroom problems for teachers) and represents a great improvement over teachers’ subjective judgment and their limited personal experiences”. Action research is an approach that has become widely used in research in education and schooling. Action research is a well organised systematic inquiry conducted by teachers, in the teaching learning environment to gather information about any immediate issue. The primary objective is to gain insight, develop reflective practice, foster effective positive changes in the school environment and improve student outcomes. Action research is the research done by teachers for themselves. Action research in second language has usually been associated with study of classroom actions rather than addressing social problems associated with language teaching. Changes can be implemented by practicing teachers, based on the results, as they feel it more credible and valid for their needs.
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Objectives of action research To develop research skills useful for classroom enquiry. To develop deeper understanding of teaching-learning process. To bring about changes in classroom teaching and learning. To empower teachers by giving them the tool which they can use to make changes within the profession in which they work. 5.13.1
FEATURES OF ACTION RESEARCH Action Research is a process for studying practical problems of the classroom. It is a process to improve the teaching/learning practices. It is systematic and follows scientific procedure. It is a personal research used to solve problems. It is teacher initiated and teacher driven. Findings are applicable to local area only and will have very less scope for generalisation. Hence, the results are owned by teachers rather than research community.
Action research generally involves inquiring into one’s own practice through a process of self monitoring that generally include entering into a cycle of planning ,acting, observing and reflecting on an issue in order to improve practice. The action research can have a specific immediate outcome which can be directly related to practice, in the teachers own context and is an extension of the normal reflective practice of many teachers. It results in increased level of teachers’ awareness, assumptions, beliefs, practices. It sometimes leads to transformation into actual observable actions. While academic research is valuable in its outcomes, it often has little practical application for practicing teachers. Action research provides opportunity to learn about themselves, students and teaching learning environment. It forces teachers to think about what they are doing in the classroom in a systematic way through a lens focussed on one particular area of their practice. Action research and professional development of teachers Action researcher starts his research by asking “How can I solve my classroom issue?” This will lead to improved class room practice. People working in the area of teaching have more demanding expectations of themselves and their colleagues because they regard the process of professional development as continuous and ongoing. Most of us tend to use a wide variety of strategies for our professional development. It is a process of reflection on professional action. This will help to give momentum for professional competence. 5.13.2
STEPS IN ‘ACTION RESEARCH’ IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
Sue Davidoff and Owen van den Berg (1990) suggest four broad stages of action research in English Language Teaching:
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1) 2) 3) 4)
plan, teach / act, observe reflect.
Here are some guidelines for each stage. Plan: Identify the problem area. Narrow it down so that it is manageable. Investigate the problem. When does it happen? Who does it affect? Where does it happen? Think about what might be causing the problem. Talk to other teachers / read thoroughly in the problem area to get more ideas about this. Think about a solution and how to implement it. Think about what evidence you will collect to decide whether your action is successful or not. How will you collect it? How will you analyse it? Teach / Act: Implement your solution. Observe: Gather evidence which you will analyse to decide whether your solution was successful or not. Reflect: Analyse the evidence you gathered. Has the problem been solved? If not, what step will you try next? If yes, what problem will you try to solve now? Thus, the steps of Action Research are . . . 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)
Identify an issue Ask questions to narrow the issue/focus of issue Choose method of data collection Collect, analyse and interpret information Develop, implement and monitor action plan Reporting
Let us discuss these steps in detail. 1)
Identifying issue
Action research begins when the researcher feels a problem in the classroom or the need to investigate an issue in his/her own context. The areas of action research could be related to:
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Issues related to four skills in language learning. Issues related to interactions which occur in English classroom. Issues related to grouping arrangement, managing groups, promoting learner motivation. Issues related to use of materials and its effects on outcomes of lessons. Issues related to teaching of grammar and vocabulary and effect of using different trategies. Issues related to forms of assessment we currently use and their outcomes. 2) Asking questions to narrow the focus of issue After deciding the topic of interest for action, researcher can start reading some background literature on the topic. It helps them to identify what others have discovered earlier. It gives more ideas about how to conduct their own action researches by adapting the methods to suit their own contexts. Teacher has to limit the focus of the issue by taking only one aspect of issue at a time. For example: Issue area – group work Pin pointing the issue – How to setup groups Resolve personality clashes in group Deal with the use of TLM in groups Use of mother tongue during group work Assess the effectiveness of group work 3) Data collection The teacher researcher next plans on the strategy to collect data. Data collection method most commonly used and most appealing to second language teachers are qualitative. It involves careful and systematic collection of information about classroom events through interview observation, field notes, questionnaire, audio video recording and transcription of lessons. Whatever be the form of data collection, it is most important that the information collected is reliable (procedures that are used to measure accurately what they claim to measure). One way to ensure this is to collect information from different sources about the issue under investigation. So triangulating the data through different techniques is to be ensured. Once data has been collected, teacher analyses and reflects on it and makes data driven decisions to take some actions. To identify patterns in the data To compare findings from different sources of data To build on interpretation from the information collected
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The main purpose at this stage is to make meaning of data gathered to determine the value of intervention.
4) Collect, analyse and interpret information The data so collected is to be analysed systematically using various quantitative and qualitative methods which are suitable to the context. Through analysis of the data, proper interpretation is to be made so as to arrive at proper conclusion for resolving the issue in hand. 5) Develop, implement and monitor action plan The next step of action research is reflection in terms of deciding on some types of action, monitoring the effect of action. Result of this intervention usually involves some change in teaching practice which is monitored. Thus the action research can be not only enjoyable but also rewarding for teachers and it is viewed as a cycle of activities rather than a one step response to the problem. It is natural extension of teachers’ classroom activities because it can be conducted by teachers in their own classroom. It can include different modules, time schedule and assessment schedule. 6) Reporting Reporting action research is also an important step in disseminating the results. It may be in the form of reporting may co workers – written report may have following format. Statement of problem Delimitation of problem Probable causes/hypotheses Method of data collection Analysis and interpretation (reflect) Development and execution of action plan (Act) Findings, and conclusion Action research serves the need of the reflective professional well. It combines the mastery of professional knowledge a teacher has built up over the years with the wisdom of everyday practice. The aim is not to turn the teacher into a researcher but help him to continue to develop as a teacher using action research as a tool in this process. Every teacher can do action research on her class room issues through planning, observation, analysing, acting and reporting. Language teachers can learn a great deal about the nature of classroom teaching .and learning as well as acquire useful classroom investigation skill. Action research can help to break out of the isolation of the teachers’ role through sharing of ideas. Being aware of other colleagues’ ideas can give a fresh slant on problems. Sharing ones’ own ideas with others can also be beneficial in many ways. Action research though usually done individually can also be done through collaboration in small groups.
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Strategy 1) Teacher educator presents a discussion paper on ‘what, why and how’ of action research as a way for professional development. The discussion paper includes detailing about the key ideas and steps involved in action research. Student teachers develop the concept of Action research for professional development of teachers in different forms such as concept map, review of paper, seminar papers or PPT. 2) Student teachers identify the issue areas in the classroom. They present the issues in their D.El.Ed classroom. Teacher educator charts them in the form of an issue tree. Student teachers are divided into school wise groups and let them select one burning issue they feel important. Let them pin point the issue (after two or three days of internship). Let the student teachers prepare tools for data collection to identify the existing status of the issue. Let them develop an action plan including a package of daily activities to solve the issue. The student teachers implement the daily activity package in the practising schools. They record the daily progress in the reflective journal. After the execution stage final assessment can also be done. Teacher educator familiarises the steps of action research report. The student teachers prepare action research report. Student teachers disseminate their findings in the D. El. Ed classroom with their classmates and review their experience in school.
5.13.3
EVALUATION OF ACTION RESEARCH PROJECT
The teacher educator can assess the awareness about the action research using the following ‘research assessment format’. Teacher educator distributes the format in the class. Student teachers are divided into pairs. Let the pairs assess each other using the format. It can also be used for self assessment. Research assessment format S.No. 1 2 3 4 5
Indicators Statement of the problem is specific and self explanatory. All probable causes are listed. Tools are reliable, valid and objective. The action plan is developed on the basis of objectives and issues identified. The activity package is appropriate for solving the
5
4
3
2
1
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6 7
8 9
10
issue. The action research could bring about a positive change in the classroom. There are valid suggestions for improving class room practice. Interim monitoring and refinement of activities has been done at regular intervals. The researcher is able to share the positive changes in one’s own Confidence level in solving class room issues. The report is comprehensive. 5= Excellent 4=Very good 3= Good 2= Average 1= below average
5.14
DIFFERENT AVENUES FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Teachers who are better informed about their teaching are also able to evaluate what aspects of their practice they may need to adjust because they are more aware of what stage they have reached in their professional development. Professional development for second language teachers is defined as the process of continual intellectual experiential and attitudinal growth of teachers. Reflective language teaching will help a teacher for professional development. Those who engage in reflective teaching can develop, A deeper understanding of teaching An evaluation of what stage they are at, in their professional growth More skills in self reflection and critical thinking More complex and clearer schema about teaching A more coherent personal approach to classroom teaching More elaborate pedagogical reasoning skills More practical decision making skills Continuing professional development Traditional professional development assumes that teachers can improve their classroom practices as a result of gaining new information and knowledge from taking a workshop or course. The belief of transmission of knowledge from training will transform teaching behaviours. But in reality, these workshops/trainings have little effect on classroom teaching. But in reflective teaching, a teacher himself/herself can articulate for current practices. This is the bottom-up approach to teacher professional development. This professional development can be achieved through: 1) Formal professional development workshops
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In order to adapt local teaching contexts to new approach, teachers need to participate in the national/international gatherings. For this purpose local language teaching organizations often run professional development workshops. The institution itself can arrange professional development opportunities for the staff. For example, ‘Lunch’ time sessions in which experienced colleagues share their ideas with others. Some teachers value professional development workshops /training that affirm what they are already doing and thereby boosting their confidence As one teacher commented when I go to meetings/trainings and people are talking about things they’ve tried in the classroom and are giving us demonstrations, I find it so reassuring because I sit there and I think, “I can relate to it. That’s the kind of thing that I do in the classroom.” But the negative sides are also mentioned by the teachers that the input vary in quality. Some training may turn to a complete waste of time. Some of the trainings are not participant oriented because the input sessions are not related to the classroom experiences. 2) Learning from colleagues Colleagues can share their idea to update each ones professional level. Some language teachers are highly creative, in developing worksheets, activities etc. A large proportion of professional development occurs by observing colleagues teaching. It helps to glean ideas from them-not only about teaching techniques, but also about the kind of personality to project in the classroom. In reality, unless newly trained teachers are engaged in team teaching, there is opportunity for them to observe their peers. New ideas of things to do in the classroom are passed from teacher to teacher from school to school, from country to country and from continent to continent, as teachers travel across the world taking their ideas with them. 3) Maturing as a language teacher The professional development pattern of each individual teacher is unique. Some teachers may develop quickly, others more slowly. Although most teachers lack confidence when they first start teaching, they report a great confidence and positive attitude towards teaching in later years. The language teacher should critically analyse what are the merits and demerits in him. The ability to establish rapport between themselves and their students is a quality shared by all successful teachers. The establishing of rapport will help to develop inter-student communication in the classroom. 4) Development of self-belief Experience and length of time in the profession are factors that contribute to the overall levels of confidence of language teachers. The longer they have been teaching the better they know their subject area, the more familiar they are with the kinds of classroom situations that are likely to arise, and the more strategies they have for dealing with those situations. As a result they are able to pay more attention to other things that are going on in the classroom. Not all
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teachers reach the point where they have strong feelings of self worth and believe themselves to be true professionals. Whenever you build up your confidence, experience and expertise, then you can claim to be a real teacher not only in qualifications but also in outlook. 5) Public recognition People in any sphere feel good about themselves when their skills and talents are recognized and when they sense that they are valued for what they do. Language teachers recognize that this affirmation, which comes in the form of positive feedback from administrators, directors of studies, colleagues or students. This gives the much needed boost to their self esteem. When students thank them personally for their effort, teachers are more affirmed. They are gratified when students make special requests to be placed in their classes. All teachers need regular affirmation of their teaching skills. Positive feedback from peers also encourages language teachers. 6) Engaging in further study Catalysts for change come in the form of ‘further study’ to all teachers. Further study not only enables language teachers to become more confident and self-assured, it may also lead them to become more confident and self assured, it may also lead them to become more independent minded. Engaging in further study inspires a teacher to consider her classroom as a laboratory and begin to experiment. S/he ponders over the relationship between student feedback, his/her own confidence levels and her desire to become an innovative teacher. Traits of good language teachers Professional competence of language teachers means acquiring skills in language teaching. Language improvement is the commonest need in in-service training for language teachers. For the improvement of language proficiency, Higher standards of use of the target language. Higher level of teaching and learning. Improved skills for lesson planning and material development. Personal satisfaction. A wide range of teaching methods for the teacher, institution and the students. Empathy Honesty Sense of humour Time management Communication and presentation skills. Language awareness workshops This helps not only to raise the awareness of the role language plays in the classroom, but also encourages teachers to apply what they learned in their various subject areas. This involves the exploring of the nature and effectiveness of their classroom language. The language awareness workshops examine three aspects of classroom language such as interpersonal aspects,
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physiological aspects and pedagogical aspects. The physiological aspect of language deals with teachers’ voice and voice projection. The interpersonal language is the language used to control, organize and motivate learning (stand up, move in your group, good idea etc). The pedagogical aspect of classroom language involves, language used by teacher in order to influence learning positively. Professional Learning Community (PLC) journal Professional Learning Community (PLC) provides a collaborative environment for teachers, administrators, other school staff, parents and community members, with their varying knowledge and skills come together to learn. PLC can create innovations in the traditional implementation process. Experiences and resources can be shared by means of a journal. Professional development journal Professional development and performance-specially in terms of the portfolio is a process that supports teacher learning and contributes to establishing new norms for professional development and evaluation. Each teacher can develop his/her own professional development plan which contains: Personal beliefs on teaching. Banner question and professional performance goals. Refinements and applications to professional practices. Visiting other schools. Attending seminars. Observing teaching and group facilitation activities in progress. Meeting with other educators who share the interests. Taking state exams to fulfill requirements. Inviting a colleague to observe you at a meeting or professional workshop. Reading articles from professional workshop and professional journals. Joining a study group in the school community. Reaching a theme or concept related to your banner question. To be an effective teacher in our own terms, we need to look both inwards and outwards. We need to develop our awareness of others view points and to look to our own beliefs, standards and values. We then need to construct a particular identity of the kind of teacher that we want to be and to seek to reproduce this in our day-to-day activities, in our actions and in our interactions in the teaching learning arena. Key ideas on Professional Development Professional development for second language teachers is defined as the process of continual intellectual experiential and attitudinal growth of teachers. A reflection includes a process that helps teachers to think about what happened, why it happened and what else could have been done to reach their goals Teachers using technology in their English class room are not only improving their instruction for their students but they are changing the very nature of that instruction. Websites, web applications, slide presentations, podcasts, blog etc can be integrated in the
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teaching learning process so that the desired goals are achieved faster. English language teachers in almost all countries have established their professional organizations; and they organize and participate in different kinds of seminars, workshops, training, and conventions in order to grow academically and professionally. Action research is a well organised systematic inquiry conducted by teachers, in the teaching learning environment to gather information about any immediate issue. Action research to gain insight develops reflective practice, foster effective positive changes in the school environment and improves student outcomes.
Thus, it is imperative for English language teachers to continue upgrading their English language skills throughout their career and improve their communication skills. They should review the learning resources, including CALL (Computer Aided Language Learning) and digital media, and discuss developing their own course materials for use in their classrooms by using a variety of oral, visual and written sources. Besides, they should also share their experiences both as language learners and language teachers with others. During the professional career, all the teachers need to upgrade their knowledge of English and its usage and sharpen their proficiency in English. A lot of avenues are available for development of language proficiency of teachers. Writing a diary and reflecting on our daily activities in writing is a very good way to improve language skills. We have to write an article and re-write it many times so that it can be refined considerably. We can become members of professional bodies which render invaluable service for our professional development. There are already some of these in the field. Teachers can also work for building up an academic networking among them by blogging, or through other internet programmes such as face book, twitter for sharing their field experiences with other teachers across the world. Forming English clubs to discuss and participate in the language activities will certainly develop proficiency in English In fact the possibilities are many. The only decisive criteria for our actions should be our own critical thinking – looking at everything including our actions from multiple perspectives. Moreover, there are some specialized institutes like English and Foreign Language University (EFLU), Regional Institutes of English and English Language Teaching Centres exclusively meant for offering all sorts of help to the teachers of English in the country. The ELTI Support Scheme (ELTIs/RIEs/SCERTs) and the District Centres for English Scheme (District Centres) spread across the country which are academically and financially (partially) supported by the English and Foreign Languages University organize several 1-month/3-month teacher development programmes and various workshops and orientation programmes on effective teaching of English. British Council of India is rendering great service in disseminating the useful ELT classroom material for the learners as well as for the teachers. These institutes conduct seminars, lectures, training programmes and also offer guidance on spoken English courses regularly for teachers for improving their communication skills and professional development. Moreover, the print and digital media, the internet and the various websites, etc.
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are of great help for developing the language proficiency and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) for English Language Teachers. 5.15
SUM UP
The knowledge of philosophy and guiding principles for the development of textbooks is very essential for the student teachers.Textbooks are prepared based on the guidelines suggested by NCF 2005, RTE 2009, APSCF 2011. The shift in classroom transaction process, selection of the themes, content and nature of exercises are also reflected in the new textbooks. The lessons selected are in confirmity with the themes suggested at national level. The interactinist and participatory approaches are given due importance in transacting the textbooks at elementary level. The changing role as a facilitator is suitable for the transaction of English at elementary level.The components of a unit are so arranged that they are in a sequential order of natural way of acquiring a language. The features of the textbooks are discussed in detail so that the student teacher may analyse the text on his.her own.Recent trends are towards the use of ICT. The use of ICT enhances the effectiveness of classroom transaction. Teachers using technology in their English class room are not only improving their instruction for their students but they are changing the very nature of that instruction. Student teachers will equip themselves with the knowledge of action research to become reflective practitioners. Action research is a well organised systematic inquiry conducted by teachers, in the teaching learning environment to gather information about any immediate issue. Action research to gain insight develops reflective practice, foster effective positive changes in the school environment and improves student outcomes. Teachers will explore different avenues for developing their proffession. Professional development for second language teachers is defined as the process of continual intellectual experiential and attitudinal growth of teachers. A reflection includes a process that helps teachers to think about what happened, why it happened and what else could have been done to reach their goals. English language teachers in almost all countries have established their professional organizations; and they organize and participate in different kinds of seminars, workshops, training, and conventions in order to grow academically and professionally. 5.16
ASSESSMENT
1) Discuss in detail the philosophy and guiding principles for the development of English language textbooks. 2) Discuss the approaches and methods of teaching English language with special reference to interactive and participatory methods. 3) How is a ‘unit’ in the present English textbook in schools organized? 4) Discuss the academic standards and learning indicators targeted at elementary level. 5) Mention the role of a teaher as a facilitator in his/her English class. 6) Mention the role of ICT in teaching English at elementary level. 7) What are the steps of action research? 8) How is action research useful for a teacher to enjoy his English class?
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9) Delimitation of the problem requires a lot of reading of related literature. Do you agree? 10) ‘Action research is an additional work for the teachers’. What is your opinion? 11) What are the different avenues for the professional development of the teachers of English? 12) Conducting action research facilitates collaborative relationships between teachers. Substantiate 13) Explain different resources of learning English? 14) Interactive books motivate readers to spend more time reading on it that printed books. Do you agree? Conduct a debate based on the topic in the class room
5.17
PROJECT WORK
1) Go through the textbook of class VII and verify how the guidelines of NCF are carrie out. 2) Observe any experienced teacher’s class and record how much participation is there from the students. 3) Go through a unit of class VI and make a report of how it is organized. 4) Use any digital source and observe how it influences the participation of the students. 5) Identify a classroom problem, conduct action research and prepare a report. 6) A good teacher is always a good action researcher even though s/he hadn’t submitted any research reports. Write your view point. 7) Collect information regarding national institutes that are meant for professional development of English teachers. 8) Plan an ICT based lesson in the upper primary class and try it out it during internship REFERENCES Teachers’ handbook for classes V I-IX, APSCERT. Induction Training module by SCERT, AP D.Ed. Source Book published by APSCERT. B.Ed. English Textbook Published by Telugu Akademi. D.Ed. English Text-Book published by Telugu Akademi. Source Books for D.El.Ed by Kerala, Karnataka, TN etc. ELT websites and internet sources.
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UNIT – 6 CLASSROOM PLANNING AND EVALUATION
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CLASSROOM PLANNING AND EVALUATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION A plan is like a map. Why do we use maps? To find our way to a place. In order to reach a place, we need two reference points. First, we should know where we are, and secondly we should know where we want to go. Without the knowledge of the two, it would be difficult to chart out our path. In the same way we plan our work to reach our goals. Planning is organizing our work. We should have an idea about what we are going to achieve. While organizing our work, we should have an idea of what we want to achieve. We should also take into consideration the resources that are available with us. Planning can happen at various stages in our teaching career. Planning should be at macro level and micro level. The macro level planning refers to the larger units of planning and includes our planning of work for the entire academic year or at least one term. The books we use to teach are divided into smaller parts called units. A unit is a comprehensive part that deals with one topic or theme in detail and this has to be taught in a similar manner. In this unit the micro teaching techniques are also discussed. This unit also focuses on certain assessment procedures that are being practiced in the high schools of Andhra Pradesh. 6.2
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student teachers will be able to Plan their work for the year, unit and period. Write an Annual plan. Write a unit Plan. Prepare a period plan Understand the importance of assessment Use formative assessment tools Prepare a formative assessment question paper. Prepare weightage tables and blue-print for the question paper. Prepare a question paper for Summative Assessment Take feed-back from peer scholars
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6.3
Use the recording procedures that are in practice. TEACHING READINESS
When we say teaching is a skill, what do we mean by it? Let us look at the definition of a skill. A skill is an ability we have such as speaking, writing, singing, drawing even eating and drinking. All these skills have been cultivated by us. They become better with practice. When you practice a skill and have total control over it, the skill becomes an art, and you become an artist. The artist continues to practice to keep his art alive. Let us see this concept in the form of a diagram. Skill is an ability.
Further practice keeps the art alive.
A person with refined art is an artist
With practice skill gets refined
Well refined skill is an art.
Teaching is not different from fine arts like music and dance. It needs practice to become better and constant practice to keep it alive. Micro teaching is one way of providing the initial practice in a discrete manner to help a novice acquire different skills of teaching. Let’s look at the sub-skills of teaching. There are many sub-skills. But the most popular sub-skills of teaching English are given below. Questioning Narrating Explaining Describing Illustrating Stimulus variation Reinforcement Black-board work Classroom management
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Integrating These sub-skills do not exist in isolation. They do occur simultaneously and a good teacher shifts from one sub-skill to another in a facile manner that makes his/her teaching meaningful. Micro-teaching For Micro-teaching, the entire student-teacher class will be divided into small groups of 10 or 12 students. Each such group will be called a ‘peer group’. Peer group means all the members of the group are equal and there are no differences among them. Each peer group will have a supervisor who is generally your teacher educator. The supervisor will divide the peer group and decide one of them as observer to that group. This forms a cycle and the supervisor makes sure that everyone has a chance to teach and to observe. One sub-skill will be practiced with the help of a lesson plan. Lesson plan for a Micro-Lesson In order to plan the lessons for micro-teaching we need to know each sub-skill of teaching thoroughly. Here is a table that gives us the components for each of the sub-skills. Sl. No 1
Sub-skill Questioning
Components Grammatically, Appropriateness, Distribution Rephrasing Handling Appreciating Grammatically, Appropriateness,
2
Explaining
Length Relevance Feed-back Choice of story tune Loudness, gestures
3
Narrating
Grammatically,
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Appropriate beginning and conclusion Choice of topic Language Grammatically 4
Describing
Use of proper words Involving learners Questions and responses Understanding of the topic
5
Illustrating
Appropriateness Level of the learner Mode of illustration verbal / pictorial Types of stimulus Choice of teaching aids
6
Stimulus variation
Appropriateness (time of exposure to the aids) Handling feed-back Movements, gestures, change in the voice
7
Reinforcement
Summarizing Involving learners Types of summaries Probing questions Clarification Illustration
8
Black-board work
Neatness, lettering, line, organization No of erasures Method of erasing Helpful in summarizing
9
Class room management
Seating, Instructing, Discipline Giving feed-back Using teaching aids
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Objectives of different Sub-Skills 1) Questioning This sub-skill is intended to help the student teachers to Frame questions grammatically. Frame questions according to the contents of the text. Distribute questions uniformly among all the learners. Rephrase questions when they are not understood. Frame proper questions to help learners respond. 2) Explaining This sub-skill trains the student teachers to Provide proper explanations. Make the explanation interesting, relevant and useful. Explain a concept for appropriate length of time Elicit proper feedback from the learners. 3) Narrating This sub-skill gives practice in Choosing the right material for narrating. Using proper tone and gestures while narrating. Using appropriate language. Modulating the voice according to the size of the class. Involving learners while narrating and express emotions. Beginning and concluding the narration meaningfully. 4) Describing This sub-skill helps the student teachers to Decide on what the object of description is. Use appropriate tense and language for describing. Choose right words for describing. Asking proper questions to involve learners. 5) Illustrating This sub-skill helps the student teachers to
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Use appropriate illustration according to the topic and level of learners. Use proper teaching aid and medium for providing illustration. Use both verbal and pictorial illustration as needed. 6) Stimulus Variation By practicing this sub-skill the student teachers can Understand the different types of stimuli Use the right type of teaching aids. Understand the proper use of different types of teaching aids. Use teaching aids meaningfully in the class. 7) Reinforcement This sub-skill is useful to Provide proper summaries. Involve learners in repeating the concepts. Become familiar with different types of summaries. Use probing questions to elicit responses. Encourage learners to seek clarifications. 8) Blackboard This sub-skill is useful to Learn to organize work on the black-board. Learn to write neatly on the black-board. Learn to write points with the help of which the lesson can be summarized. Learn to erase the board neatly and properly. 9)
Classroom Management This sub-skill is used to make the student teachers to Learn ways of giving proper instruction. Learn to alter the seating arrangement in the class when required. Maintain discipline in the class. Make sure all the learners participate in the learning process. Give appropriate summaries and reinforce learning.
While developing a micro lesson plan we should state our objectives properly. We should also indicate the materials we need to use in teaching. A model lesson plan format for microteaching will be like the following one.
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Suggested Lesson Plan Format for Micro – Teaching Lesson Plan
Name:
Roll No:
Skill:
Components:
Date:
Objectives: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Teacher’s Talk
Learner’s Talk
Materials used
Black-board Work
Supervisor’s Comments: This plan format is self-explanatory and what you need to do is just follow it. 6.3.1
PLANNING OF TEACHING LANGUAGE
Every lesson and class is different. The content depends on what the teacher wants to achieve in the lesson. However it is possible to make some generalizations. Students who are interested in, involved in and enjoy what they are studying tend to make better progress and learn faster. When thinking about an English lesson it is useful therefore to keep the following three elements in mind - Engage – (Explore – Explain – Elaborate – Evaluate –) Study - Activate
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Engage This means getting the students interested in the class. Engaging students is important for the learning process. Study Every lesson usually needs to have some kind of language focus. The study element of a lesson could be a focus on any aspect of the language, such as grammar or vocabulary and pronunciation. A study stage could also cover revision and extension of previously taught material. Activate Telling students about the language is not really enough to help them learn it. For students to develop their use of English they need to have a chance to produce it. In an activate stage the students are given tasks which require them to use not only the language they are studying that day, but also other language that they have learnt. What is a lesson plan? A lesson plan is a framework for a lesson. If you imagine a lesson is like a journey, then the lesson plan is the map. It shows you where you start, where you finish and the route to take to get there. Essentially the lesson plan sets out what the teacher hopes to achieve over the course of the lesson and how he or she hopes to achieve it. Usually they are in written form but they don't have to be. New or inexperienced teachers may want to or be required to produce very detailed plans - showing clearly what is happening at any particular time in the lesson. However in a realistic teaching environment it is perhaps impractical to consider this detail in planning on a daily basis. As teachers gain experience and confidence planning is just as important but teachers develop the ability to plan more quickly and very experienced teachers may be able to go into class with just a short list of notes or even with the plan in their heads. Whatever the level of experience, it is important that all teachers take time to think through their lessons before they enter the classroom. Why is planning important? One of the most important reasons to plan is that the teacher needs to identify his or her aims for the lesson. Teachers need to know what it is they want their students to be able to do at the end of the lesson that they couldn't do before. Here are some more reasons for planning is important:gives the teacher the opportunity to predict possible problems and therefore consider solutions
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makes sure that lesson is balanced and appropriate for class gives teacher confidence planning is generally good practice and a sign of professionalism Do you need to plan if you have a course (text) book? Many teachers will find themselves having to use a course book. There are advantages and disadvantages to having a course book - but although they do provide a ready-made structure for teaching material, it is very unlikely the material was written for the teachers' particular students. Each class is different and teachers need to be able to adapt material from whatever source so that it is suitable for their students. A course book can certainly help planning, but it cannot replace the teacher's own ideas for what he or she wants to achieve in a class. What are the principles of planning? AIMS - considering realistic goals for the lesson, not too easy but not too difficult. You may find the following checklist useful: What do the students know already? What do the students need to know? What did you do with the students in the previous class? How well do the class work together? How motivated are the students? VARIETY - an important way of getting and keeping the students engaged and interested. FLEXIBILITY - expect the unexpected! Things don't always go to plan in most lessons. Experienced teachers have the ability to cope when things go wrong. It's useful when planning to build in some extra and alternative tasks and exercises. Also teachers need to be aware of what is happening in the classroom. Students may raise an interesting point and discussions could provide unexpected opportunities for language work and practice. In these cases it can be appropriate to branch away from the plan. Effective lesson planning is the basis of effective teaching. A plan is a guide for the teacher as to where to go and how to get there. However - don't let the plan dominate - be flexible in your planning so that when the opportunities arise you can go with the flow. Planning is done for a year for each subject. Syllabus comprises of some units. We write unit plans for all the units. Each unit is divided into workable periods. 6.3.2
YEAR (ANNUAL) PLAN
We find the annual plan in every text-book itself. But the teacher can plan on his/her own keeping in view of the respective classroom level. Here is an example for Annual Plan from 8th Class English.
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Objectives The children will be able To sing poems and enjoy the rhyme, rhythm and imagery in the poems. To listen to stories narrated by the teachers and others. To listen and comprehend what others are speaking according to the context. To speak to their parents, teachers and classmates in different situations To read and comprehend the textual materials and other materials suitable for their level. To write simple words, phrases and sentences according to the context. To use level specific vocabulary and grammar while speaking and writing. To produce level specific discourses such as conversations and descriptions etc.
Unit
Month
1
June – July
2.
3.
August
September
Name of the unit A. The Tattered Blanket B. My mother C. A letter to a friend
A. Oliver asks for more B. The cry of th e children C. Reaching the unreached
A. The selfish giant – 1
Periods required
Strategy
TLM / Resources Text-book Audio files Flash cards Realia Pictures Notebooks etc.,
26
Interaction Whole class activity Individual activity Group activity Negotiation Feed – back
22
Interaction Whole class activity Individual activity Group activity Negotiation Feed – back
Text-book Audio files Flash cards Realia Pictures Notebooks etc.,
Interaction Whole class
Text-book Audio files
Programmes /Activities Reading comprehension Vocabulary activities Language activities Writing activities Project word Listening comprehension Choreography . Reading comprehension Vocabulary activities Language activities Writing activities Project word Listening comprehension Choreography . Reading comprehension
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B. The selfish giant C. The garden within
4.
5.
6.
Dec - Jan
February
March
A.The story of Ikat B. The earthern globet C. Maestro with a mission
A.Bonsai Life -1 B. Bonsai Life – II C. I can take care of myself
A. Dr.Dwaraka Nath Kotnis B. Be thankful C. The dead rat
activity Individual activity Group activity Negotiation Feed – back
Flash cards Realia Pictures Notebooks etc.,
22
Interaction Whole class activity Individual activity Group activity Negotiation Feed – back
Text-book Audio files Flash cards Realia Pictures Notebooks etc.,
22
Interaction Whole class activity Individual activity Group activity Negotiation Feed – back
Text-book Audio files Flash cards Realia Pictures Notebooks etc.,
22
Interaction Whole class activity Individual activity Group activity Negotiation Feed – back
Text-book Audio files Flash cards Realia Pictures Notebooks etc.,
22
Vocabulary activities Language activities Writing activities Project word Listening comprehension Choreography. Reading comprehension Vocabulary activities Language activities Writing activities Project word Listening comprehension Choreography. Reading comprehension Vocabulary activities Language activities Writing activities Project word Listening comprehension Choreography. Reading comprehension Vocabulary activities Language activities Writing activities Project word Listening comprehension Choreography.
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6.3.3
UNIT PLAN
Unit plan relates to all the activities in a Unit are meticulously planned for the teachers to transact in the classroom. A model Unit Plan is given below for better understanding. Model Unit Plan Class: VIII
Unit: Family
Subject:
No. of periods required:24
English
A. Reading: The Tattered Blanket B. Reading: Poem- My Mother C. Reading:
Letter
Expected outcomes: 1) Involvement of children during the transaction of all components to make them listen and express their views and ideas freely. 2) Children should able to read and comprehend the given reading text individually and collaboratively. 3) Children should able to use appropriate Vocabulary and Grammar in oral and written discourses. 4) Creative Expressions; Construction of written Discourses Description – narrative – conversation – letter – paragraph. Period No 1
Resources / Content / Activity/ discourses Face-sheet
Strategy Picture interaction
TLM Required Text-book Black board enlarged picture
2
Discourse – Description of my family
Interaction
Charts
Individual
Text book
Group activity
Black-board Flash cards
3
Discourse editing
Interaction, negotiation
Charts
individual and group presentation
Text book Black-board Flash cards
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4
A. Reading . Family Segment 1. Paras 1-3
Individual, Group and Teacher reading
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards
5
Discourse – Construction of a narrative
Interaction
Charts
Individual
Text book
Group activity
Black-board Flash cards
6
Discourse editing - Narrative
Interaction, negotiation
Charts
individual and group presentation
Text book Black-board Flash cards
7
Reading Segment 2: Para 14 to 32
Individual group and Teacher reading
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards
8
Discourse construction of a conversation
Interaction
Charts
Individual
Text book
Group activity
Black-board Flash cards
9
Discourse editing and conversation
Interaction, negotiation
Charts
individual and group presentation
Text book Black-board Flash cards
10
Reading segment 3 Para 33 to 48
Individual group and Teacher reading
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards
11
Discourse – description of the character of Gopi
Interaction
Charts
Individual
Text book
Group activity
Black-board Flash cards
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12
Discourse editing
Interaction
Charts
Individual
Text book
Group activity
Black-board Flash cards
13
Transaction of components
Interaction
Charts
Vocabulary
Individual
Text book
Group activity
Black-board Flash cards
14
Transaction of components
Interaction
Charts
Grammar
Individual
Text book
Group activity
Black-board Flash cards
15
Transaction of components
Interaction
Charts
Writing Paragraph
Individual
Text book
Group activity
Black-board Flash cards
16
paragraph editing
Interaction, negotiation
Charts
individual and group presentation
Text book Black-board Flash cards
17
Transaction of listening activity
Teacher and whole class activity
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards.
18
Transaction of components
Interaction
Charts
Study skills
individual and group activity
Text book Black-board Flash cards
19
B.Reading; Poem My mother
Individual
Charts
group and Teacher reading
Text book Black-board Flash cards
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20
Discourse : Writing the script for choreography
Interaction, negotiation
Charts
individual and group presentation
Text book Black-board Flash cards
21
Discourse Editing - The script for choreography
Interaction, negotiation
Charts
individual and group presentation
Text book Black-board Flash cards
22
C.Reading: Letter to a friend
Individual Group and Teacher reading
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards
23
Discourse: Letter writing
Individual and group activity
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards
24
Discourse - Editing
Interaction, negotiation, group presentation
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards
25
Transaction of Project
Individual and Group activity
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards
26
Project work - Presentation
Interaction, negotiation and group presentation
Charts Text book Black-board Flash cards
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II. Period wise Teacher’s notes /Interactive questions Period 1: Face sheet 1. What do you observe in the pictures? 2. What kind of families do you observe? 3. What is a small family? 4. What is a large/ big family? 5. Which kind of families do we find in the present society? Small/big families? Why? 6. Which family do you like to live in, small or big? Give reasons. 7. What are the other details you want give related family? Period 2: Discourse: Description of my family . 1. How many members are there in your family? 2. Who are they? 3. Who are the bread winners of your family? 4. How many sisters do you have? 5. What do your sisters do? 6. How many brothers do you have? 7. What do your brothers do? 8. What are your father and mother? 9. What do the other people in your family do? 10. What do your grandparents do? 11. How do you help your parents? 12. How do you help your grandparents? 13. Do you like your family? Why? 14. How is your family different from other families? Period 3: Discourse-Editing- Description of your family What modifications will you make in the description if you have to write again in terms of the following? 1. The theme – Does the description communicate the theme? 2. The language – Whether is there any changes needed in the sentences presented? 3. Whether the events sequence is in order, are there any changes needed? 4. Do you find any excess words in this sentence? 5. Do find any spelling error in this sentence? 6. What errors related to punctuation do you find here? III-Teacher Reflections/ Comments (Period Wise) Teacher reflections should be recorded by the teachers after completion of each class.
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6.3.4
PERIOD PLAN
Class VIII (The Tattered Blanket - Unit – I)
Period - 1
You many have noticed that each unit contains a face sheet with a pictures and proverbs.
Objectives of interaction based on the picture. The learners: • Come out with their perception (i.e. what they think about the pictures) of the picture. • Talk about their understanding of the theme that is inbuilt in the picture as well as in various components of the unit. • Make intelligent predictions on the passage, they are going to read
a) Theme based picture interaction Item
Details
Steps in Picture based interaction
• Show the pictures of families in page 2 of the reader and interact with the learners by asking a few questions most of which are to be analytical. Some questions are suggested below: 1. What do you observe in the pictures? 2. What kind of families do you observe? 3. What is a small family? 4. What is a large/ big family? 5. Which kind of families do we find in the present society? Small/ big families? Why? 6. Which family do you like to live in? Give reasons. • Elicit the responses to the questions and write them on board/chart.
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• Display the chart in the classroom. Note: a) Write the answers which are related to the theme. b) The children are motivated to answer the questions in their own way based on their own perceptions. c) Do not interfere while responding. b) Text based picture interaction. • Elicit the responses at random from the picture. Strategy
Whole class and individual activity, oral drill, Teacher’s support Classroom interactions Teacher uses these questions for classroom interactions. 1. What do you observe in the pictures? 2. What kind of families do you observe? 3. What is a small family? 4. What is a large/ big family? 5. Which kind of families do we find in the present society? Small/big families? Why? 6. Which family do you like to live in, small or big? Give reasons. 7. What are the other details you want give related family? Teaching Learning Materials / Black Board Work Assessment of Children’s Performance
Textual Picture , Chart and Black-board A chart with interactive questions.
Teacher’s Reflections
Write the positive and negative aspects of the transaction. The teacher also records the gaps he/she has identified. He/she also records the plans / points to improve his / her own performance.
Write the names of students who performed up to the expected standards. The names of children who gave some special responses and the responses should also be recorded.
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Model Period Plan Class – 8
Unit – 1: The tattered blanket
Time – 45 Minutes
Period – 4
Reading Segment – 1 (paragraphs 1 to 13) Objectives 1. Children make an effort to read individually and track their own reading process. 2. They make sense of the reading passage using a number of strategies • Checking their predictions on the reading passage • Locating information that they were able to pool from the interaction that has taken place • Guessing the meaning of words from the context and also using familiar words as stepping stones. • Using the glossary given to them, etc. • Sharing ideas with others 1. They make sense of the reading passage through collaboration. 2. They reflect on the passage they have read. 3. They analyze the information given and link it with their personal experience. 4. They generate their own texts from the given text. Item Steps in transacting the reading text.
Details
Interact with the children to connect the theme picture with reading passage. Specifies the part of the passage that is to be read. The Tattered Blanket Individual reading Paragraph – 1-13 • Ask children to read individually. They can only read it at their own pace. You may give the following directions to help them track their own progress in reading. 1. Read the given passage ‘Tattered Blanket’ from paragraph 1to13 silently. 2. Use a pencil to put a ‘tick’ against the lines you are able to understand. 3. You may put a question mark against the line that contains parts you are not able to understand. 4. Pick out the important events in this part of the story. 5. Put a star against the lines that you liked the most. • Move round the class to monitor whether they are tracking their reading process. • You may interact with them in between by asking questions like
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the following. o Don’ worry if you were not able to read and understand the whole of the passage. o Try to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words with the help of words you already know. o Please do not consult with anyone at this point. You can put question marks wherever you faced difficulties. Sometimes the glossary may help you. Addressing issues related to low proficient learners If you think there are a few low proficient learners you need to work out some strategies to help them get at least some ideas from the reading passage. You can try the following: • Ask specific questions; 1. Who are the people in the passage? 2. How are the characters related? 3. What are the main events in the story? 4. What are the descriptions involved in the story? 5. Who came home? 6. How did he arrive? 7. Where was the man coming from? 8. Why didn’t mother recognize Gopi? 9. Why didn’t he write a letter to his mother? Note: The objective of this type of interaction is to help the learners their own sub texts from the reading passage. The sub texts can be in the form of names of the (characters, objects, places, etc.) and events. These will provide the learners good support in their efforts to make sense of the reading passage. Possible sub text. Mother-sister-Gopi- same family- Kamala, her eldest daughter , a widow, who was sitting huddled up on the thinna on the verandaGopi came in an office jeep- from his office work-because of old age –because with his office work. Collaborative Reading: • Divide the learners into groups.
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• Follow the process suggested earlier. • Ask a few comprehension questions relevant to this part of the reading passage: 1. How was the situation when the man arrived? 2. Why did the old woman loss memory 3. Why did Gopi travel all the way from Delhi to Thiruvananthapuram ? 4. Whose school was closed for vacation? 5. Why didn’t Gopi visit his mother over the years? Loud reading Loud reading by the teacher • Read the passage aloud with proper pauses, stress, tone and pitch. Loud reading by the pupils • Give the following instructions for loud reading. 1. Now you are going to read aloud in your groups. 2. Divide the reading passage into various parts according to the number of members in your group. 3. Decide among yourselves who will read which part. 4. Each one of you can take turns and read aloud your part. Others can offer suggestions to make loud reading better. • Continue interaction as suggested in the earlier unit Extrapolating the text • Display a chart containing a set of analytical, reflective and inferential questions to make the learners think, extrapolate the text and construct their own texts from it. • Ask these questions and elicit individual responses at random. Write down select responses on the chart. Elicit the responses at random. 1. What was the mother’s position? 2. Have you identified any noun phrases/ noun phrases in opposition in the passage? 3. What are the consequences of not recognizing Gopi? 4. How did Gopi try to bring back her memory?
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Strategy
Picture reading and individual and group and whole class interaction and activity.
Interactive questions
The teacher interacts with the students by asking the following questions. 1. What do you see in the picture? 2. What are they talking about? 3. Who are the people mentioned in the paragraph? 4. What do you mean by the word ‘countryside’? 5. Who was the old lady’s eldest daughter? 6. Do you have any such relatives who come to your home rarely? 7. Was the son writing letters to her mother? 8. How often do you write letters to your relatives/parents? 9. How did Gopi come to his mother’s house? 10. Who is Kamala’s brother?
Interaction for generating sub-text
1. What time of the day it is? 2. Who are Kamala and Gopi? 3. Did Gopi visit his mother frequently? 4. Do you think Gopi was looking after his mother very well?
Teaching Learning Materials / Black Board Work
Textual Picture, Chart and Black-board , flash cards, text of the 113 paragraphs on a chart. A chart with interactive questions. Pictures of some birds. (theme pictures on pages 6,7,8 and 9)
Assessment of Children’s Performance
Write the names of students who performed up to the expected standards. The names of children who gave some special responses and the responses should also be recorded. (This has to be done after the class)
Teacher’s Reflections
Write the positive and negative aspects of the transaction. The teacher also records the gaps he/she has identified. He/she also records the plans / points to improve his / her own performance. (This has to be done after the class)
It is enough the teacher writes the period plan once in an academic year. In the successive academic years if there are no changes in text-book and syllabus there is no need to write the lesson plan once again. The teacher should leave some space after each period plan to add notes and teacher’s reflections. 6.4.1
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
There are different ways to quantify and qualify the teaching and learning experiences. The process of learning is based on test,/measurement,/assessment /evaluation. This can be represented diagrammatically as follows.
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Test
Measurement
Assessment
Evaluation
TEST Test is a procedure for assessing learners’ knowledge of content assimilation. This is done by responding to a set of questions independently. The results obtained can provide a quantitative comparison of the performance of different learners. It is a tool of measurement designed to elicit a specific sample of an individual behavior. It is a procedure that draws inferences about certain characteristics of individuals according to explicit procedures. It provides the means for more carefully focused abilities. It supplements the methods of measurement. One example of language test is Test of English as a Foreign Language. [TOEFL]. MEASUREMENT Measurement is the process of quantifying the characteristics of persons according to explicit procedures and rules. Quantification involves the assigning of numbers in order to analyse and interpret skills and abilities. For example when we say, a learner reads 300 words per minute; we are measuring the reading speed of the learner and assigning a numeric value (300 wpm) to the skill of reading. We can assign numbers to both the physical and mental characteristics of persons. Physical attributes such as weight and height may be observed indirectly. But, certain traits can be observed indirectly. These include characteristics such as aptitude, fluency in speaking or achievement in reading comprehension. The characteristic of measurement is that quantification has to be done according to explicit rules and procedures, so that there can be no pseudo measures. To illustrate if explicit elements of speech to be measured are not specified, while measuring the speaking ability of a learner, the different raters may measure different skills or abilities of speaking like pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and discourse. This may create a wrong interpretation of the speaking ability of the learner. Therefore, rules and procedures for measurement have to be made clear. ASSESSMENT Assessment is a general term that includes the full range of procedures used to gain information about learner’s learning. Ex: Observations, ratings of performances or projects and paper pencil tests and the function of value judgments concerning learning progress. EVALUATION Evaluation is the process determining the changes in behavior through instruction. Therefore, it is a continuous process.
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“The systematic gathering of information for the purpose of making decisions” - Weiss (1972) One aspect of evaluation therefore is the collection of reliable and relevant information. This information need not be exclusively quantitative. As human behavior is multi-dimensional, the objectives of learning will also be multi-dimensional. Based on the nature of objectives, many tools can be used for evaluation. Some popular tools are, paper and pencil tests, records of various sorts, observation of behavior and performances, verbal descriptions, overall impressions etc. Evaluation, thus, involves the following procedural steps. Specification of objectives of an area to an observable or measurable degree. Development and use of variety of tools to get evidence of the level of achievement of each objective. Summarizing and interpreting the outcome of the measurement. Usage of these details to improve curriculum, teaching and guiding or to certify. Keeping in view of all these descriptions we can infer that evaluation is both quantitative and qualitative process that concerns with the teaching and learning in a given situation. 6.4.2
NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION
Evaluation is an important process to measure teaching learning strategies. It is multi – dimensional process. It gives us an understanding of the existing learning behaviours in order to explain, design and modify the learning experiences. Evaluation should be seen as an integral part of the teaching learning process. Evaluation is a process of discovering the extent to which competencies of learners developed in initiating, organizing and improving his day-to-day work and to diagnose his strengths and weakness with a view to further guidance. Evaluation enables to predict the educational practices. At the end of the course to certify the learners degree of proficiency in a particular educational practice. Thus the need and importance of evaluation can be stated as following. To find pupils progress from time to time in order to improve teaching strategies. To presume learners’ future, academic status or success. To identify the learners’ intellectual ability and weakness for further development. To support the teacher to modify and to adapt suitable modern teaching and learning strategies. To assess the extent to which goals have been achieved. To support the teacher for self-improvement based on the achievements of learners. To develop more effective curriculum, learning experiences
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“The purpose of evaluation added a new dimension to the process of evaluation namely, accountability, which is the modern concept in which teacher is accountable to leaners, parents, society and to his own profession.” - R.C.Sharma. 6.5
CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION
Education is incessant process. Evaluation and development must go hand in hand. It is carried out in every possible situation or activity of the pupil. Comprehensive evaluation means it should not concern itself with knowledge but it should take into account, the factors that are inherent in learners’ growth such as skills understanding, appreciation interest, attitude and habits. It covers in curricular as well as co-curricular areas of the learner. It should be carried out in relation to learner’s cognitive affective and psychom*otor growth. Cognitive development refers to the intellectual development of learners such as learners’ knowledge comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Evaluation is a comprehensive term, which includes objectives, content, learning experiences and evaluation procedures. Evaluation is a kind of cyclical process as the following diagram explains us. objecives
Procedure
content
Learning experiences
evaluation
Teaching strategies
Every teacher should evaluate the learners’ continuously and comprehensively to find out the effect of teaching and learning process and re-plan his teaching strategies very effectively. 6.5.1
ASSESSMENT AS, FOR AND OF LEARNING
Assessment as Learning is the use of ongoing self-assessment by students in order to monitor their own learning, which is “characterized by students reflecting on their own learning and making adjustments so that they achieve deeper understanding.” (Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education [WNCP], 2006, p.41) The table above provides a summary of Assessment as Learning as a part of a three-part assessment pyramid. (taken from WNCP, 2006, 85).
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An understanding of Assessment as Learning is essential in a digital age where information is readily accessible and teachers move from being the "knowledge-bearers" to knowledge-guides. Just as teachers guide students through the acquisition of knowledge, they must guide students through the process of understanding their own cognitive processes so that students learn to monitor their own learning and make adjustments. ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING Assessment for learning, a type of formative assessment, is utilized by teachers in order to gain an understanding of their students' knowledge and skills in order to guide instruction. Assessment enables teachers to determine steps in advancing student learning. Each student’s progress and learning needs are assessed in relation to the curricular outcomes. Assessment suggests different modes that make the students’ skills and understanding visible. Assessment ensures quality by providing accuracy and consistency of observations and interpretations of student learning. Assessment provides each student with accurate descriptive feedback to further his/her learning. ASSESSMENT AS LEARNING Assessment as learning, as previously mentioned, is also a formative assessment which focuses on teaching students' the meta-cognitive processes to evaluate their own learning and make adjustments. Assessment guides and provides opportunities for each student to monitor and critically reflect on his or her learning and identify next steps. Each student’s thinking about his her learning is assessed. It also gives clarity about the strategies he/she uses to support or challenge that learning. Assessment ensures quality by improving accuracy and consistency of students self-reflection, self-monitoring and self-adjustment. Students record their own learning and improve it. Assessment provides each student with accurate, descriptive feedback that helps him/her develop independent learning habits. ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING Assessment of Learning is a summative assessment used primarily to compare students and report progress according to Earl (2003). Unit tests are a commonly used form of Assessment of Learning. The assessment helps the teachers and administrators to certify or inform the performance to parents or others. The students’ proficiency in relation to curriculum
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learning outcomes are assessed and reported. Students’ key concepts, knowledge, skills, attitudes related to the curriculum outcomes will be assessed. Assessment provides accurate, consistent and fair information regarding the performance of the students. With this information students can plan the next steps in their learning. Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation, as we have read in Paper- IV of 2nd year, is being implemented in the form Formative Assessment and Summative Assessment.
6.5.2
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT AND TOOLS
Formative Assessment is the backbone in newly proposed Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE). The four tools in F.A. are helpful to teacher to assess his/her students in other cognitive areas like communication, participation, presentation, aesthetics, etc. There are FOUR formatives in a year. So, teacher should record four times, i.e., July, September, December and February of every Academic year. Four Tools for Formative Assessment Testing Tool 1) Reflections: 2) Written Works: 3) Project Works: 4) Slip Test: Total :
Marks allotted 10 10 10 20 50 Marks
1) REFLECTIONS: Reading is one of the major inputs for language development. If we do not go for some kind of focused interventions to facilitate reading skills, students will be reading their textbooks only. There should be a mechanism to ensure that students are reading materials other than textbook, develop their own perceptions on such materials and come out with their own reflections on the reading experience both orally and in writing. Since there is also a question of social auditing, we need to have evidences for the performance of the students in this regard. For the oral performance, what the teacher records in his/her diary/notebook alone will provide the evidence. HOW TO FACILITATE READING: The teacher is suggested to provide reading material such as library books, magazines, articles, newspapers, etc. to the learners twice in a formative period (there are four formative periods in an academic year). The learners should read the reading materials and write their reflections in their notebook. (Students should maintain separate notebook to write reflections, project work and discourses during classroom transaction.
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They will also be asked to present their reading experience orally (without looking at the notebook) before the class. The teacher should check the written notes of the children and award marks for individual writing based on the indicators included in the academic standards in at least 100 to 120 words (10 – 12 sentences). Both oral and written performance carry 10 marks. The teacher should maintain a cumulative record for recording the individual performance. Don't discourage the learners if they commit some errors in their writing. However positive feedback may be given.
Marks Allotment a) Introduction: (Physical features, author, publishers, etc.) b) Content: c) Conclusion: (Language, comments, own reflections, etc.)
2 Marks 4 Marks 4 Marks
Total = 10 Marks 2) Written Works: The written works include the discourses written individually as part of classroom process, the answers to the analytical questions assigned to the learner as home task, the textual exercises such as vocabulary, grammar and study skills. Teachers have to ensure that children are written individually and not copying from others or other sources. Allotment of Marks Notebooks : Texual exercies : Wall magazine, Error free expressions and others : Total :
4 Marks 3 marks 3 Marks 10 Marks
3) Project Works: Why Project in ‘English’? Every unit contains a thematically related project work to be carried out by the students. 'Projects' help the students to evolve themselves as independent users of language. 'Project Work' provides a platform for interchanging language skills and various study skills. It also involves higher order of thinking. Nature of 'Projects' in English : While carrying out the 'Projects', the learners have to explore the theme by collecting data, consolidating it using different formats, write reports on them and make presentations in the whole class. There is a space for individual work, pair work and also group work.
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Process: Brainstorming on the nature of the project, Designing tools for the collection of data, Collecting the data, Consolidating the data using different formats, Analysis and interpretation of the data, Report writing, Presentation. Please remember that brainstorming is extremely important as the students have to understand the purpose of the project, its scope and significance. Please do not leave the following questions while brainstorming. 1) How will you pool information ? (Tools such as questionnaire, checklists, observation schedule, interview, referencing, etc.) 2) Where will you get the information from ? (Resources such as people, books, journals, magazines, newspapers, institutions, internet, etc.) 3) Who will collect the information? (Individuals / pairs / groups) 4) How will you consolidate the information? (Sharing in groups and recording using appropriate formats) 5) What analysis can be made based on the data? 6) How to write the report? (The structure of the project : Name of the project, purpose, scope and relevance of the project, tools developed, mode of collection of data, consolidation and analysis, findings with supportive evidences such as photographs, etc.) 7) How will you present the data ? (Presenting report : Each member can present one part ) Classroom Process: Stage: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Brainstorming (one period) Data collection (3 – 4 days ; homework) Consolidating the data and deciding the structure of the report (1 period) Writing the report (2 days – homework) Refining and presenting the report (1 – 2 periods)
Total four (4) periods are needed for processing the project in addition to homework.
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Marks Allotment a) Collection of data/information: 3 Marks (Using resources such as people / books / magazines / journals/newspapers / internet, etc.) b) Report writing: 4 Marks (Consolidation of data, analysis and writing the report on the project) c) Presentation: 3 Marks (Presenting the report to the whole class) Total: 10 Marks 4) Slip Tests: Slip test is more or less similar to Summative Assessment but it is still different from the former in terms of the following. There is no prior notice for conducting slip test. It is done in a limited time. (Say, in a period of about 40 minutes) There is only limited number of tasks. The discourses that have been done in the formative period are considered for slip test. There is no printed question paper. The teacher can write the tasks on a chart and display it or write the questions on the BB There should be one discourse (Creative Writing), one passage for Reading Comprehension and one item from Vocabulary & Grammar Slip tests should cover the discourses to prepare the students for the summative tests. Award the marks based on indicators that are included in the Academic Standards under written discourses. Assess the written performance and provide feedback to the learners. The teacher should record the slip test marks in a register and should consolidate the marks during every formative period. Record the marks in the Cumulative Record. Allotment of Marks a) Reading Comprehension: 5 Marks (Seen and Unseen passages are to be covered in all the four formatives – two each) b) Vocabulary: 5 Marks c) Grammar: 5 Marks d) Creative Writing (Discourses): 5 Marks Total : 20 Marks
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FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT MODEL QUESTION PAPER FORMATIVE ASSESMENT Name of the Student::
Class::VIII
Reflections(10)
Written work(10)
Project work(10)
Slip Test (20)
Total(50)
Marks Grade Slip Test Reading comprehension(5)
Vocabulary(5)
Grammar(5)
Creative Expression(5)
Total(20)
Marks Grade READING COMPREHENSION: Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions. Suddenly they noticed the teacher carrying bundles of cloth walking towards the class. A few of them dashed to help her. They all liked her as she was fair to everyone and was never partial to one student. The brilliant red and black checked rumals, shawls with black and blue geometric patterns caught the attention of the class as the teacher handed over the material to the eager helpers. Now answer the following questions. 1) What did they notice? 2) Why did the children like the teacher? 3) How were the rumals and shawls? Read the following lines. I felt conscious impulse in my clay To break away From the great potter’s hand that burned so warm. Now answer the following questions. 1) Who is the speaker? 2) How was it burned?
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2) VOCABULARY: 5M Write five sentences by using the following hom*onyms. a) Fair( Adj) b) Fair (Noun) a)mind( noun) b)mind(vcerb) a)quiet(adj) b) quiet(noun) Write the meanings in English a)mandatory= b)intersect= 3)
5M
GRAMMAR :
Rewrite the following sentences in to reported speech
5M
1) “Ramya is my daughter,” said Ravi. A) 2) “I’ll catch you in a minute,” replied Seema. A) 3) “ Shyam has eaten my chocolate,” says Arjun. A) 4) “The smugglers will be back,” the police said. A) 5) Rama will say, “it is a wonderful adventure.” A) 4) Creative writing:-
5M
If you were the Earthen Goblet what are your feelings? Write five sentences. 6.5.3
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Summative assessment is held at the end of each term (after certain period of learning). At present, in the schools of Andhra Pradesh Three Summative Assessments are being held to assess students’ performance in their respective subjects. Summative Assessments are held for 80 marks and the other 20 marks will be taken from internal assessment by the teachers. All academic standards will be assessed during summative assessment. The weightage tables and blue-print for a Summative Assessment are as following.
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A.P.
ENGLISHCCE PROCEDURE
SUBJECT: ENGLISH
CLASS: VI to VIII TOTAL MARKS: 80
ACADEMIC STANDARD-WISE WEIGHTAGE Academic Standard
% of Weightage Marks
Reading Comprehension 37.5%
30
Creative Expression
25.5%
20
Vocabulary (Part - B)
18.75%
15
Grammar (Part - B)
18.75%
15
Totals
100%
80
BLUE PRINT OF THE QUESTION PAPER Section
Academic standards
I
Reading Comprehension
II
III
Source
Q. No
Marks Objective V.s.a. S.a. Essay Total type
1
T.B.
10
10
10
2
“
5
5
5
3
“
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
UNSEEN 5 “ 5
5
5
Creative Expression
6
T.B
10
10
10
7
UNSEEN 10
10
10
Vocabulary (Part - B)
8
T.B.
2
2
2
9
“
2
2
2
10
“
2
2
2
11
“
2
2
2
202
IV
Grammar (Part - B)
12
“
3
3
3
13
“
4
4
4
14
T.B.
4
15
“
4
16
“
7
Totals
80
4
4
4
4 7
4
15
41
ENGLISH QUESTION PAPER – PATTERN - VI - VIII I. READING COMPREHENSION 1. Reading Comprehension from 'A' Reading 5 × 2 = 10 2. Reading Comprehension from 'B' Reading 5 × 1 = 5 3. Reading Comprehension from 'C' Reading 5 × 1 = 5 4. Reading Comprehension (Unseen passage) 5 × 1 = 5 5. Reading Comprehension from Unseen - study skills 5 × 1 = 5 II. CREATIVE EXPRESSIONS 6. Discourses based on Textbook (one out of two) 1 × 10 = 10 (Conversation / Description /Diary / Script for a speech ) 7. Discourses (General) (one out of two) 1 × 10 = 10 (Letter / News Report / Biographical sketch / story with hints) III. VOCABULARY 8. Synonyms - (A passage from A. Rading - underline the words) 2 M 9. Opposite Words - (A passage from A.Reading - underline the words) 2 M 10. Right form of the words (A passage from A.Reading - Blanks) 2 M 11. Spelling [Q.No. (a), (b), (c) ] ( 3 questions - 3 marks) 3 M 12. Classification of vocabulary (Select the words from textbook) 2 M Note: Questions from 8 to 12 should be asked basing on the textbook of each class from class 6 to 8. 13. (Q.No. (a), (b), (c), (d) .......} 4 M Note: Uner Q.No. 13 cover the vocabulalry topics given in the textbook in each class from class 6 to 8.
7 20
80
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IV.GRAMMAR 14. A passage for editing ( Errors should be underlined)(Unseen) 4 × 1 = 4 15. Cloze test (Unseen) 4 × 1 = 4 16. Grammar - from Textbook Q.No. {16. (a), (b), (c), (d) .......} 7 M Under Q.No. 16 cover the Grammar topics given in the textbook in each class. Note: Questions should be in the knowledge level of the student's class.
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT – MODEL QUESTION PAPER SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT - III Third Language - ENGLISH PART - A & B Class : VIII ]
(Max. Marks : 80) [ Time : 2.45 Hrs. PART – A (50 marks)
INSTRUCTIONS : 1. Answer all the questions under Part - A on a separate answer book. 2. Write the answers to the questions under Part - B on the question paper itself. 3. Start answering the questions as you read them. 4. 15 minutes of time is allotted exclusively for reading the question paper and 2. 30 hours for writing the answers. 5. Part - B of the question paper will be supplied along with Part - A at the beginning of the examination. SECTION – A READING COMPREHENSION (30 Marks) 1. Read the following passage. “She’s in her final year at school. If by God’s grace she clears her exams, I am determined to send her to college. Your Baavagaru doesn’t really like the idea of sending her to the next town and putting her in a hostel. But I don’t like to keep a girl at home without educating her. Isn’t what I am going through is enough?” (Bonsai life Part- 1) Now answer the following questions. 5X2 = 10 a) ‘Isn’t what I am going through is enough?’ What situation is the narrator going through? b) What does the phrase ‘clear the exams’ in the passage mean? c) Is the narrator supporting girl child education? Support your answer. d) Who is the narrator speaking to? e) Why doesn’t the girl’s father like to send the girl to college?
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2. Read the following stanza. I can’t remember my mother, but when in the early autumn morning the smell of the shiuli flowers floats in the air the scent of the morning service in the temple comes to me as the scent of my mother (My mother) Now answer the following questions 5X1 =5 a) ‘I can’t remember my mother.’ What does this statement mean? b) How does the poet feel that his mother is with him? c) What is the season mentioned in the poem? d) What imagery do you find in this stanza? To which sense does it appeal you? e) Who wrote this poem? 3. Read the following passage. In the city of Ujjain there was a young merchant named Madananka. He lost his father when he was in his teens. So, it was his mother who brought him up with great affection and love. Unfortunately, he turned out to be a vagabond. His mother hoped that he would become normal and settle down if he is married, and so, she found a suitable girl and they were married. But Madananka became worse. (The Dead Rat) Now answer the following questions.
5X1 =5
a) What was Madananka? b) What did Madananka’s mother do to make him a normal person? c) Who looked after Madananka after his father’s death? d) What does the word ‘vagabond’ mean? e) What kind of a lady was Madananka’s mother? 4. Read the following passage. In April 1912, a great new ship sailed across Atlantic on her first voyage. She was the largest ship in the world, even today, she would be one of the biggest afloat. She was called the greatest ship that was ever built or a ship that would never sink. She set sail with 1408 passengers and a crew of 800 all of whom were looking forward to a wonderful voyage. But three days later, on 14 April, she ran into an ice-berg. The unbelievable incidence took place. The unsinkable ship sank in the icy Atlantic. Of 2208 people on board, 1503 drowned and only 705 were rescued. What was the name of the ship? The Titanic. Now answer the following questions. a) b)
5X1 =5
Which Ocean did the Titanic sail across? How many people were saved when the ship sank in the sea?
Choose the correct answer from the choices given below. c) How many people were working on the ship? i) 1408 ii) 800 iii) 1503
(
)
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d)
e)
The name of the ship was …………… ( i) Atlantic ii) crew iii) Titanic Which of the following statements is true? ( (i) The Titanic hit an ice-berg. (ii) The Titanic did not sink because it is an unsinkable ship. (iii) All the members of the crew were saved.
)
)
5. Study the following table carefully. The maximum and minimum temperatures of certain cities recorded on 02-09-2016 are given below. S.No Town / City 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Temperature in Celsius Maximum Minimum Nellore 34 27 Kakinada 33 27 Vijayawada 35 28 Eluru 33 26 Kadapa 37 25 Kurnool 36 25 Tirupati 30 21 Visakapatnam 31 28
Now answer the following questions.
5X1 =5
a) Which place has the highest difference between maximum and minimum temperatures? b) Which is the coolest place? Choose the correct answer from the choices given below. c) The minimum temperature of Kadapa is equal to the minimum temperature of _______________________. ( i) Tirupati ii) Kurnool iii) Eluru d) The maximum temperature of Visakapatnam is higher than the maximum temperature of _____________. ( i) Tirupati ii) Eluru iii) Kadapa e) Which of the following statements is true? ( i) The above table gives us information about the temperatures of certain places. ii) Eluru is the hottest place. iii) Kakinada is hotter than Nellore.
)
) )
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SECTION – B CREATIVE EXPRESSION (20 Marks) 6. (a) Imagine that you met a weaver who is selling wonderful cotton saris woven by him. He is very poor and illiterate. Now write a possible conversation between the weaver and you keeping in mind the details of the life of weavers and the art of weaving as you have read in the lesson ‘The story of ikat’. 10 M (OR) (b) Your class teacher took you to a nearby handloom textiles bazaar. She/he explained you how the modern textile mills are causing the problems for the handlooms growth. Now make a diary entry recording your feelings about the poor condition of handloom industry and weavers. 7) (a) Write the bio-graphical sketch of popular badminton player Saina Nehwal using the following details. 10 M Name Parents Birth Profession Place No. of international titles Awards
: : : : : : :
Titles
:
Saina Nehwal Harveer Singh , Usha Rani 17 March, 1990 Badminton Player Hisar, Haryana 23 Arjuna Award – 2009 Rajiv Khel Ratna – 2009 Padmasri – 2010 Padma Bhushan - 2016 Won Bronze Medal for India in 2012 London Olympics Recently won the Malaysian Masters’ Badminton Title.
(OR) (b) Write a story using the following hints. A dove and an ant – close friends – live on tree – on the bank of a river – one day – ant crawls on a leaf – leaf falls into water – almost drowns – dove notices the danger – drops another leaf into water – reaches shore safely – a few days later – a hunter points his arrow – to shoot the dove – ant notices the danger – bites his feet and run – hunter loses his target – dove files away – friends live happily.
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SUMMATIVE ASSESMENT -III Third Language – English PART – B Class: VIII]
Academic Standard Marks Allotted
[Max.Marks:30
Reading Creative Comprehension Expression 30
Vocabulary Grammar
20
15
15
Total
Total Grade
80
80
Marks Obtained
Name of the Student:........................................................................ Roll No:.................. Instructions: 1. Answer the questions in Part –B on the question paper itself. 2. This part of the question paper should be attached to the main answer book of the students. SECTION – C VOCABULARY (Marks 15) 8. Choose the words with similar meanings (synonyms) from the list given to the words underlined. (4X ½ = 2) [steadily, people, ran, important, immediately, steps, ] Mr.Bumble walked on with long strides.(a) Little Oiver, firmly (b) grasping his gold-laced cuff, trotted (c)beside him. Oliver had not been within the walls of the workhouse a quarter half an hour, when Mr.Bumble informed him that the board had said he has to appear before it forthwith (d). Answers: (a) …………………………………………. (b) …………………………………………. (c) …………………………………………. (d) ………………………………………….
208
9. Write the opposite words of the underlined words.
(4X ½ = 2)
I once owned(a) a large, lovely garden, with soft (b) green grass. Here and there over the grass stood beautiful (c) flowers like stars, and there were twelve peach trees that in the springtime broke out into delicate (d) blossoms of pink and pearl and in the autumn bore rich fruit. Answers: (a) …………………………………………. (b) …………………………………………. (c) …………………………………………. (d) …………………………………………. 10. Fill in the blanks with the right form of the words given in the brackets. 4X ½ = 2 Dr.Kotnis always wanted to ____________ (a) (travel / travelled) around the world and ______________ (b) (practice / practise ) medicine in different parts of the globe. He started his ___________________ (c) (medical / medicinal) expedition in Vietnam and then, ________________ (d) (moved / movement) on to Singapore and Brunei. Answers: (a) …………………………………………. (b) …………………………………………. (c) …………………………………………. (d) …………………………………………. 11. a) Complete the following words using “ua, ai, ea, ia, ou” (2X ½ = 1) (i) He draws a salary of two th_ _ sand rupees. (ii) He completed his grad_ _ tion in medicine. b) Complete the following words with the suffixes given in the brackets.
(2X ½ = 1)
I can’t contain my excite___________ (mant / ment). It’s almost I’m face to face with my near and dear ones and they are speaking affectiona_________(tely/tly) to me. c) Identify the wrongly spelt word and write the correct spelling in the space provided. (2X ½ = 1) i) minutes
people
tradision
design
Ans: ………………………………… ii) material
caliculation
knowledge
Ans: ……………………………………
jubilant
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12. Arrange the following words under correct headings.
8X ¼ = 2
nurse, armchair, ladle, widow, beadle, giant, letter, blackboard Persons
things
1.
………………………..
………………………….
2.
………………………..
………………………….
3.
………………………..
………………………….
4.
………………………..
………………………….
13. Use the following words in sentences of your own.
4X1 = 4
(a) sum (n) Ans: ……………………………………………………………………………….. (b) quiet (adj.) Ans: ………………………………………………………………………………. (c) mind (v) Ans: ………………………………………………………………………………. (d) answer (v) Ans: ………………………………………………………………………………. SECTION – D GRAMMAR (Marks 15) 14. Read the following passage and correct the words underlined. Rewrite the correct words in the space provided. Once there was a (a) old farmer in a village. He was very weak and no longer able at (b) work on the field. He had to lease his land to her (c) neighbor. While ploughing the field the neighbor found a pot. The pot is (d) filled with gold and silver. 4X1 =4 Answers: (a) …………………………………………. (b) …………………………………………. (c) …………………………………………. (d) ………………………………………….
210
15. Complete the following passage choosing the right words from the choices given below. Each blank is numbered and four choices are given. Choose the correct answer and write (A) or (B) or (C) or (D) in the blanks. Once there was _______ (1) boy called Sobhan. He was fond of travelling by different modes _____ (2) transport. He ________ (3) visiting new places. One day he saw some boys riding _______ (4) the backs of the buffalos. 4X1 =4 1.
A) a
B) an
C) the
D) none
2.
A) to
B) of
C) by
D) at
3.
A) love
B) loves
C) loved
D) loving
4.
A) on
B) in
C) of
D) under
16. A) Read the following dialogue that took place between two friends. Add suitable question tags to complete it. 3X1 =3. Rajani: There are dark clouds in the sky. It’s going to rain.____________________ ? Sumathi: Yes, it will rain heavily. Rajani: You like to play in rain. ________________ ? Sumathi: Yes, I like to play and dance in rain. Rajani: I am suffering from fever and cold. I think I can’t play in the rain. ____________________? B) Report the following conversation in indirect speech.
4X1 =4
Rani: John, What are you doing? John: I am watching a movie. Rani: Who is the hero? John: Amir Khan. He is my favorite actor. _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ The above question paper is in the model of question papers being used for classes 6-8 in the schools in the state of Andhra Pradesh. These models are designed keeping in view of the guiding principles of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation. It is very important to prepare a key for evaluating the scripts of the students.
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PREPARING KEY Scoring is to be prepared for objective type questions and the marking scheme for other questions. The scoring key gives the alphabet of the correct answer and the marks carried by each question. The marking scheme gives the expected outline answer and the value points for each aspect of the answer. Detailed instructions for markings are also worked out. For example in marking compositions, it is specified as to how many marks are to be deducted for spelling mistakes or structural mistakes. The process of grading the compositions should also be specified. The detailed marking scheme is necessary to ensure consistency and uniformity in scoring by different examiners. In other words it ensures reliability of scoring.
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT – 3 ENGLISH – CLASS – VIII KEY SHEET PART – A 1.
(a) The narrator was not properly educated. She was confined to her home. (b) ‘Clear the exams’ means pass the exams. (c) Yes, the narrator is supporting girl child education. Her determination to send her daughter to college tells us that she is supporting girl child education. (or any relevant answer) (d) The narrator is speaking to her sister. (e) The girl’s father doesn’t like to send the girls out of the village for education. (or any relevant answer)
2.
(a) This statement means that the poet’s mother died. (or any relevant answer) (b) He feels the presence of his mother by smelling the scent of the morning service in the temple. (c) The season mentioned in the poem is autumn. (d) The scent of morning service in the temple is like scent of the poet’s mother. It appeals to nose. (e) Rabindranath Tagore wrote this poem.
3.
(a) Madananka was a merchant. (b) She got Madananka married. (c) Madananka’s mother looked after Madananka after his father’s death. (d) Vagabond means a person who has no home and usually no job. (or) Vagabond means a person who travels from place to place. (or any relevant answer) (e) Madananka’s mother was very affectionate and caring.
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4.
(a) The Atlantic ocean. (b) 705 people were saved. (c) (ii) 800 (d) (iii) Titanic (e) (i) The Titanic hit an ice-berg.
5.
(a) Kadapa (b) Tirupati. (c) (ii) Kurnool (d) (i) Tirupati (e) (i) The above table gives us information about the temperatures of certain places.
6. Evaluation Indicators: a) Conversation: (Each indicator carries two marks) i) Using dialogues apt to the context. ii) Using proper sequence of exchanges. iii) Using discourse markers (well, precisely, etc.) and appropriate cohesive devices. iv) Sustaining the conversation with social norms (being polite, reflecting reflections). v) Conventions of writing (punctuation, spelling and capitalization) b) Diary: (Each indicator carries two marks) i) Using expression of personal reflections, thoughts and feelings. ii) Using language appropriate to the mood. iii) Self criticism and future plans. iv) Coherence. v) Conventions of writing (punctuation, spelling and capitalization) 7. Biographical sketch: Discourse Indicators: Each indicator carries two marks. (i) Presenting relevant ideas and information of the person. (ii) Organizing the information and data. (iii) Maintaining coherence. (iv) Using cohesive devices. (v) Conventions of writing (punctuation, spelling and capitalization) (b) Story Writing: Discourse Indicators: Each indicator carries two marks: (i) Writing about setting and other details (ii) Containing a sequence of events or dialogues. (iii) Evoking sensory perceptions and images. (iv) Characterization and maintaining coherence (v) Conventions of writing (punctuation, spelling and capitalization)
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PART - B 8. (a) steps (a) steadily (c) ran (d) immediately 9. (a) disowned / hired (b) hard / rough (c) unattractive / ugly (d) strong / tough /rough 10.
11.
12.
(a) travel (b) practise (c) medical (d) moved (A) (i) ou (ii) ua (B) (i) ment (ii) tely (C) (i) tradition (ii) calculation Persons: 1. nurse 2.widow 3.beadle 4. giant Things: 1. armchair 2. ladle 3. letter 4. blackboard
13. (a) sum (n) Ans: This sum is very difficult. (Any relevant answer can be given full credit.) (b) quiet (adj.) Ans: Today the sea is quiet. (Any relevant answer can be given full credit.) (c) mind (v) Ans: Would you mind opening the window? (Any relevant answer can be given full credit.) (d) answer (v) Ans: I can’t answer these questions. (Any relevant answer can be given full credit.) Section – D 14. (a) an (b) to (c) his (d) was 15. 1 – A, 2 – B, 3 – C, 4 – A 16. (A) Isn’t it? Don’t you? (B) (i) Rani asked John what he was doing. John said that he was watching a movie. (C) (i) my younger sister (ii) the father of the nation (iii) the river linking canal
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6.6
FEED-BACK AND REPORTING PROCEDURES
Feedback is a vital concept in most theories of learning and is closely related to motivation. Behavioral theories tend to focus on extrinsic motivation such as rewards (Weiner, 1990). In language learning and teaching, varying types of feedback can be provided to students. As in other disciplines, feedback that motivates students’ language learning should receive particular attention. On practical grounds, feedback for motivation and language correction are a key concern for language educators. Feedback can be defined from various perspectives. Based on Hattie and Timperley’s (2007) work, feedback can be defined as “information provided by an agent with respect to one’s performance or understanding” (p. 81). However, feedback also encompasses the consequences of performance. There are different kinds of feed-back. Let’s discuss some of them which are very popular these days. DIRECT CORRECTION FEED-BACK Bitchener and Knoch (2010) claimed that direct feed-back provides for correction of linguistic form or structure at or near the linguistic error. They explained further that this feedback can be the crossing out of a word, phrase, or morpheme, the provision of grammar rules, or the oral clarification of written meta-linguistic explanations. To address oral performance, teachers may point out that the learners’ utterance is wrong. As such, they directly identify their students a specific point of error. (Carroll & Swain, 1993, as cited in Varnosfadrani & Basturkmen, 2009) Some debates rose against grammar correction. Some researchers found grammar correction was not helpful (Sheppard, 1992; Truscott, 1999). To discover if learners benefit by having grammar errors corrected by their teachers, researchers have produced some interesting findings. For example, Leki (1991) found that ESL (English as a Second Language) students had wished that their writing teachers would have provided them direct feedback on their writing. INDIRECT CORRECTION FEED-BACK Implicit feedback or Indirect Correction Feed-back is defined as furnishing the type of error that has been made but not providing a correction (Bitchener & Knoch, 2010; Bitchener, Young, & Cameron, 2005). In their writing, Bitchener et al. (2005) claimed that the means of implicitly correcting errors could include underlining or circling an error and recording in the margin the number of errors in a given line. Coded feedback points to the exact location of an error, with the type of error involved indicated with a code. Bitchener et al. illustrated the use of coded feedback in correcting an English tense. For example, PS means an error in the use or form of the past simple tense. They (2005) defined uncoded feedback as “instances when the teacher underlines an error, circles an error, or places an error tally in the margin, but, in each case, leaves the student to diagnose and correct the error” (p. 193).
215
RECAST FEED-BACK Among different types of corrective feedback, the recast was the most frequently used in oral correction. Furthermore, adults benefited more than adolescents from recast in their learning of conditionals and relatives. The teacher’s corrective recast was found to be very effective in removing erroneous structures from the students’ language. Interestingly, Abdollahzadeh and Maleki (2011) stated that “Leaving learners’ errors unnoticed might result in the fossilization of erroneous structures; hence, they should not be neglected, instead learners’ errors should be corrected either on the spot as in this study or with delay” (pp. 64-65). REPORTING Department of School Education Portal www.cse.ap.gov.in was developed to bring all information related to education on a single platform. It was desired to monitor all data to make education an ennobling experience. Various measures are being taken to enhance the performance of the students. One such measure is Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation. Hence it is desired to develop an application to capture performance of the students in four formative tests and three summative exams. The Government of Andhra Pradesh intended to digitalize all the data related to the performance and attendance of the students across the State and to make it available for students, teachers, administrators etc. It is useful to monitor the performance of the students in all the formative and summative exams and to take corrective measures wherever required. All the fed data is kept readily available for display on the Hon’ble Chief Minister’s Dash Board. This is useful to review the progress of the students, district wise, subject wise and school wise. The head of the institution (Headmaster/Principal/MEO) will login into the website and feed the data of SA and FA marks along with the attendance of the students. The software consolidates and reports it to all the concerned. All the teachers shall submit the marks in their respective subjects to the Head of the institution who in turn will feed it in the web-formats.
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Screen shot of the website marks entry format There are separate formats for F.A and S.A. procedures. As the student-teachers of a digital era you must know these advancements in reporting. Some schools are sending the reports to the parents in emails and through their websites. Students’ performance is reported to students’ by analyzing it using readymade software. The software calculates the percentage of progress and represents it in graphical form. Some schools have already started using ‘e report cards’ where there is no need of physical form of cards. 6.7
RECORDING CHILDREN’S PERFORMANCE IN CCE REGISTER
CCE REGISTER SUBJECT WISE/STUDENT WISE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS OF ANDHRA PRADESH
Grading after year ending consolidation or for any F.A or S.A will be done as per the table given below. Those who secure D2 Grade will be treated as failed candidates.
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6.8
CONCLUSION
We have understood the importance of assessment in learning. Assessment is an integral part of teaching learning process. It should be based on the objectives of language teaching such as language items, empowerment of language skills, expression skills, literary interest, positive attitudes, aesthetic feeling, culture and customs, translating skills encouraging and appreciating creative writing etc. In order to make assessment objective oriented, the students should go beyond the text-books such as reference books, original texts, dictionaries, encyclopedias, different magazines etc. All these books should be made available to the students. In brief, teaching and assessment procedures should ensure the growth of cognitive, social, aesthetic and moral aspects of a child’s personality. 6.9 ASSIGNMENT 1) What are the advantages of micro-teaching? What are the objectives of teaching different sub-skills through micro-teaching? 2) What do you mean by teaching readiness? Explain? 3) Explain the terms test, measurement, assessment and evaluation. 4) How does assessment play different roles in learning? 5) How do you implement CCE in your classroom? 6) How do you make use of different tools in formative assessment? 6.10
PROJECT WORK
1) Prepare a summative assessment question paper for the contents of any Unit from Class VII. 2) Prepare a slip test (formative assessment) question paper for Class VI students. 3) Visit a nearby high school and collect the formats being used in those schools for recording the performance of their students and write them or paste them in your record books. 4) Collect a Summative question paper from a nearby High School and prepare the blue-print and weightage tables for the same.
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6.11
REFERENCES
1. http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/images/6/66/Assessment_As_Learning.png 2. B.Ed. Methods of Teaching English published by Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad 3. Training module on English Language Teaching for new Primary Teachers by Sarva Siksha Abhiyaan, Andhra Pradesh. 4. English Language Text-Book for Class – 6 5. English Language Text-Book for Class – 7 6. English Language Text-Book for Class – 8 7. Summative question papers prepared by APSCERT – Amaravathi. 8. New Teachers’ Module English – Primary Stage. 9. Feedback in Second Language Teaching and Learning by Anongnad Petchprasert, University of Phayao, Phayao, Thailand. 10. www.cse.ap.gov.in ************
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APPENDIX – 1 OBSERVATION FORM FOR AN ‘ENGLISH LESSON’
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APPENDIX-1 D. El. Ed. Course – English Teaching Practice Lessons – (Level: Classes - 1 & 2 / 3, 4 & 5) OBSERVATION FORM Date
:
Name of the School
:
Name of the teacher
:
Class taught
:
Unit No. & Name of Unit & Period No.
:
1) Lesson Planning : : Whether the teacher planned the lesson period-wise? Comment on the lesson plan. 2) Listening /Let’s listen:
:
a) Comment on the conduct of Rhyme / poem / story by the teacher. b) Have the children (pupils) followed/ responded to the teacher’s reading of the listening passage/poem. How? 3) Speaking/Let’s talk activity
:
a) Comment on the teacher’s demonstration of the activity. (Role play/ pair/group work activities by the teacher as well as the pupils.) b) Pupils’ activity: Let’s talk/answer/Act 4) Learning of new words
:
Comment on the conduct of activities, viz., a) Words to remember b) Let’s say (words) aloud 5) Reading: Let’s read: Comment on … : a) b) c) d)
Teacher’s model reading Pupils’ reading Comprehension exercises Silent reading of/by the pupils
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6) Doing things: Comment on the activities: a) b) c) d)
Let’s do Colour it Let’s draw Let’s work
7) Writing: Comment on writing activity : of the teacher as well as pupils on … a) Handwriting : Trace the letters / Join the dots / dotted lines / Let’s write / draw b) Written exercises: Supply of the missing letter/word /Writing exercise/s, etc. c) Dictation activity:
:
:
8) Study skills: Comment on the activity in the classroom by the teacher and pupils. 9) Teaching Learning Material (TLM) : Comment on the preparation and use of TLM by the teacher in the classroom. 10) Assessment/CCE: Comment on the : conduct of assessment procedures (Formative/ Summative) / CCE adopted by the teacher. 11) General comments
:
a) Whether construction of English language has taken place in the classroom? b) Comment on the Teacher’s English: Accuracy/ Fluency/Appropriacy/ Pronunciation. 12) How is pupils’ acquisition of English: 13) Classroom Management by teacher. : 14) Overall Impression
:
15) General Remarks / suggestions
:
Name, Designation & Signature of the Observer
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APPENDIX – 2 MODEL LESSON PLANS
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APPENDIX - 2
EXAMPLES OF UNIT PLAN & PERIOD PLANS Model Unit Plan for Unit-1: ‘Peace and Harmony’ of Class VI UNIT PLAN
CLASS – VI Harmony
Unit Objectives:By the end of the unit the students will be able …. to interact based on the picture and come out with their perceptions. to get the sounds made by different animals and birds. to sing and enjoy the poem. to get the rhyming words, rhythm of the poem. to talk about how animals live together in a forest. to identify the describing words in a given passage. get sensitized about the relevance of peace and harmony. to read critically the given reading passage. listen to the story and respond to it. to do the writing tasks. to do the conversation task, prepare a script for compeering.
UNIT -1: Peace and
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Unit Plan Perio d
Topic
Process
Material
Strategies
No 1
Picture based interaction
Story narration
Interaction based on the picture given on page no.1 Description of the picture Narrating the first slot of the story ‘The Friendly Mangoose”
Picture chart of the picture on page no.1. Flash cards of the animals and birds and action word mentioned in the passage.
Warm – up Interaction Oral discourse construction. Listening to a narration Responding to the questions.
task sheets 2
Story narration - 2nd slot of the story “The Friendly Mangoose”.
Peace and Harmony paragraphs 1 & 2.
Picture based interaction. Presenting the 2nd slot of the story “The Friendly Mangoose”. Micro process of reading. Comprehension tasks Identifying the describing words in the passage. Enacting actions mentioned in the text. Vocabulary task: using right word
Picture chart of the picture on page no 11.
Chart to display the glossary
Masks of animals
Task sheets
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading Scaffold reading Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
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3
Story narration – 3rd slot of the story “The Friendly Mangoose”.
Presenting the 3rd slot of the story “The Friendly Mangoose”. Micro process of reading Comprehension tasks. Vocabulary task - synonyms
Peace and Harmony paragraphs 3 & 4.
Chart to display the glossary
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading Scaffold reading Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
Flash cards
Task sheets Story narration – 4th slot of the story “The Friendly Mangoose”.
4
Peace and Harmony paragraphs 5& 6
Presenting the 4th slot of the story “The Friendly Mangoose”. Interaction based on the picture given on page no.2 Micro process of reading Comprehension tasks. Vocabulary task - spellings
Picture chart of the picture given on page no.2. Chart to display the glossary
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading Scaffold reading Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
Flash cards Task sheets
5
Peace and Harmony paragraphs 7& 8
Micro process of reading Comprehension tasks. Vocabulary task - classification. Task on opposites
Chart to display the glossary
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading Scaffold reading
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Flash cards Task sheets
6
Peace and Harmony paragraphs 9& 10
Micro process of reading Comprehension tasks. Vocabulary task – adverbs Home task
Chart to display the glossary Flash cards Task sheets
Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading Scaffold reading Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
7 Peace and Harmony paragraph11
Micro process of reading Comprehension tasks. Vocabulary task – opposite words.
Chart to display the glossary
Matching task.
Flash cards
Preparation of Invitation card
8 Peace and Harmony paragraph12
Micro process of reading Comprehension tasks. Vocabulary task – using right form of the word.
Task sheets
Chart to display the glossary Flash cards
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading Scaffold reading Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading
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Rearrange the jumbled sentences. Study skills
Task sheets Scaffold reading Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
9 Poem “I Want Peace “
Comprehension tasks. Vocabulary task – choosing appropriate word
Chart to display the glossary Flash cards Task sheets
10
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading Scaffold reading Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
Poem “I Want Peace “ Comprehension tasks. Vocabulary task – word building
Chart to display the glossary Flash cards Task sheets
Whole class interaction Individual reading Collaborative reading Scaffold reading Vocabulary tasks Individual and group tasks
A complete unit is not suggestible to be taught in 10 periods. The student teacher is expected to take 10 consecutive periods from a unit which is feasible for formative as well as summative assessments. This is a tentative plan. The teacher has the flexibility to make necessary changes. The student teacher is suggested to make children recite the rhyme/poem daily until a new rhyme/ poem is started
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PERIOD PLAN-1 Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title: Transaction Process:
Peace and Harmony Picture based interaction
Objectives: To encourage the learners who are reluctant to speak. To encourage them think creatively. To help them share their ideas freely. To encourage them to come out with their perception of the picture. To make them listen to simple instructions and responds accordingly. To help them identify the names of familiar objects in English. To help them read the picture and associate them with the words. To encourage learners to say words related to the theme. To improve their vocabulary through the concept map of the concept ’nature’ Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Creative Expression. Teaching Learning Material: Picture chart of the picture given on page no. of class VI text book. Flash cards of birds and animals. Masks of animals/ birds, Work sheets/ task sheets
No. on Roll: No. Present:
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Process Step
Questions for interaction
Expected children’s responses.
Instructions
Displaying the Picture chart of the picture given on page. no. 1
Children, a picture chart is displayed. Look at the picture. Observe carefully..
Is the picture clear?
-------------
Is the picture visible?
Look at the picture. Eliciting Key/relevant vocabulary
Observe it carefully.
What place is it?
a forest, animals, birds, trees, branches, sitting, standing, talking, saying, listening.
Respond to the questions. Think, discuss and give your response. Observe what I’ve written.
What persons/objects do you see in the picture?
What actions do you observe in the picture?
Observe the spellings.
Eliciting ideas from the picture.
Observe the picture carefully.
What animals do you see in the picture?
There is a tiger, an elephant, a deer, a giraffe, a monkey and a rabbit.
What birds do you see in the picture?
There is a parrot and a crow. They are under a tree.
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Writing the ideas on the board.
Where are the animals/?
The birds are on a tree.
Respond to my questions.
Where are the birds?
Think, discuss and tell me.
What is the elephant doing?
The elephant is saying something to the other animals.
Are they happy?
They other animals are listening to the elephant
You can respond in mother tongue also.
Are they talking seriously about any issue?
They are seriously discussing an issue.
The responses are written on the board.
How many sentences are written?
There is a tiger, an elephant, a deer, a giraffe, a monkey and a rabbit.
What is the first sentence? What is the longest sentence?
Read them from the board.
There is a parrot and a crow. They are under a tree. The birds are on a tree.
Read slowly.
Ask me if you require any help.
The elephant is saying something to the other animals. They other animals are listening to the elephant. They are seriously discussing an
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issue.
Assigning a task:
Let’s attempt the description of the Is the task clear? picture. Do you require any help?
Arrange the following sentences in an order. They are under a tree. They other animals are listening to the elephant There is a parrot and a crow They are seriously discussing an issue There is a tiger, an elephant, a deer, a giraffe, a monkey and a rabbit The elephant is saying something to the other animals The birds are on a tree.
Listening task: Narrating the first 2 paragraphs of the story “ The Friendly mongoose”
The story will be narrated.
Am I audible?
Listen to the narration.
Shall I increase/decrease my speed?
Listen attentively.
How are my expressions?
Observe my facial expressions,
Where have I raised my voice?
1st slot of the story ‘ The Friendly Mongoose”
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action and movement.
Some questions will be asked. Asking questions for interaction
Respond to my questions
You may respond in a word, a phrase or in a sentence.
Do not hesitate to give your reply even in mother tongue.
Where is the scene taking place?
In the farmer’s house.
How many characters are there in the story?
Four We must have a pet
What did the farmer say one day to his wife?
Our son will have a companion.
Why did the farmer want a pet?
A baby mongoose.
What did the farmer bring one evening?
The mongoose.
Who will be a friend to the farmer’s baby?
The mongoose is lovely with her shining eyes and bushy tail.
How much time did the mongoose take to grow up?
The farmer’s son is sleeping and crying occasionally.
Six months.
How did the mongoose look like? How was the farmer’s son after six months of his birth? Home task
A task is given to you. Note the task in your note book. Do the task at your home.
Is the task clear?
----------------
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Teacher’s reflections: Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the diary
Group products
Note: the student teacher may plan concept mapping on any other concept also. He/she may plan more tasks for assessment.
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PERIOD PLAN-2 Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
Peace and Harmony- Paragraphs 1 & 2
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process:
Reading
No. Present:
Objectives: To encourage the learners who are reluctant to speak. To encourage them think creatively. To help them share their ideas freely. To encourage them to come out with their perception of the picture. To make them listen to simple instructions and responds accordingly. To help them identify the names of familiar objects in English. To help them read the picture and associate them with the words. To encourage learners to say words related to the theme. To improve their vocabulary. To make them read critically. To make them do the tasks assigned. Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Teaching Learning Material: Picture chart of the picture given on page no.1 of class VI text book. Flash cards Work sheets/ task sheets
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Process Step
Questions for interaction
Expected children’s responses.
Instructions
Listening task: Narrating the 2nd slot of the story “ The Friendly mongoose”
The story will be narrated.
Am I audible?
Listen to the narration.
Shall I increase/decrease my speed?
Listen attentively. Observe my facial expressions, action and movement.
2nd
slot of the story ‘ The Friendly Mongoose”
How are my expressions? Where have I raised my voice? Fill the following blanks.
Asking questions for interaction/assigning a task
5 statements are given. Read them and fill the blanks.
1. The farmer’s wife wanted to go to the _____. 2. The baby is sleeping in a ____________. 3. The farmer’s wife told the farmer to __________on the baby. 4.________and ________ are the best friends. 5. the farmer went to his---------
Market Cradle Keep an eye The baby and the mongoose Fields.
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Displaying the Picture chart of the picture given on page. no. 1
Look at the picture. Observe carefully. Some questions are asked. Respond to the questions.
Children, respond to my questions. Linking the picture with the reading text
Is the picture clear? Is the picture visible?
-------------
Do you know why the animals and birds assembled there? Do you know what are they talking about? Do you want to know why they have assembled there and are talking about?
-----------------------------yes
What is the title of the story? Specifying the reading portion
Where is the scene taking place? Children, go through the first and second paragraphs of the story’ Peace and Harmony’.
How many sentences are there?
Peace and Harmony In a forest No dialogues.
How many dialogues are there? What are the paragraphs about?
Description of the place.
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Individual Reading
Don’t worry if you are not able to read and understand the whole text.
Is the portion specified clear?
Try to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words.
Do you require any help?
Are you able to read?
Is the glossary sufficient?
Once upon a time…..to be the guests of honour at their musical evenings.
Who lived in the thick forest?
Animals and birds
How were the animals and birds lived?
Happily
Please do not consult any one at this point.
Children, I will ask you a few questions. Respond to my questions. Checking comprehension You may give your response in a word/ a phrase/a sentence.
Mention one or two activities that they lived happily. How are the songs of the cuckoos? How do the peaco*cks feel about their dance? What did they often held? Who did they call as guests of honour? What, do you think, is the theme of the story?
Roamed about the forest, played in the open fields. Melodious. Proud Musical evenings The Moon and the stars
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Is the task clear?
Fill the blanks with suitable words. The animals and birds are ______in the forest.
Individual task Children, here is a task.
The _________were very proud of their dances.
Do it. Do it individually.
The cuckoo’s singing is ______________. They often hold______________ They invite the moon and the stars as their__________.
Collaborative reading
Group task
Children sit in groups. Share the ideas. Share only one idea at a time.
Who requires help?
Continue sharing till you complete all the ideas.
What is the first idea that you have shared?
How many ideas have you shared?
Match the words of list A with the words of list B
Here is a task for you. Do it in groups.
Once upon a time…..to be the guests of honour at their musical evenings.
Is the task clear? A
B
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Fish
Are the questions clear?
Scaffold reading
Children, Some questions will be asked. Think, discuss and respond to my questions.
Loud reading by the teacher
Children, now I’ll read the text aloud. Listen to me. Observe where I’ve paused. Observe the tone, pitch and voice.
open fields
Gymnastics
flat footed
Rabbits
pond
Musical evenings
ants
Tickling
bear
Dance
deer
Why do you think the animals and birds live together?
Have you ever seen wild and domestic animals live together?
Am I audible? Where have I paused?
Once upon a time…..to be the guests of honour at their musical evenings.
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Loud reading by the children
Now you are going to read aloud in your groups Each one of you can take turn and read aloud your part.
How many times have you paused?
Once upon a time…..to be the guests of honour at their musical evenings.
Where have you raised your voice?
Student Teacher’s reflections:
Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy Group products
Note: The student teacher may plan some more tasks. He / she may use any technique other than questioning to discuss the poem
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PERIOD PLAN-3 Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
Peace and Harmony- Paragraphs 3 & 4
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process:
Reading
No. Present:
Objectives: To encourage the learners who are reluctant to speak. To encourage them think creatively. To encourage active participation in groups. To help them share their ideas freely. To encourage them to come out with their perception of the picture. To make them listen to simple instructions and responds accordingly. To help them read the picture and associate them with the words. To make them read aloud with proper tone variation, voice modulation. To make sense of the reading passage through collaboration. To reflect on the passage they have read. To analyze the information given and link it with their personal experience. To generate their own texts from the given text. Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Teaching Learning Material: Picture chart of the picture on page no.11 of class VI text book. Flash cards Task sheets
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Process Step
Displaying the Picture chart of the picture given on page. no. 11 and interaction based on the picture.
Instructions
Look at the picture. Observe carefully. Some questions are asked. Respond to the questions.
Questions for interaction
Expected children’s responses.
What place is it? Who is the woman I the picture? Who is the man in the picture? What did the woman do? What do you see near the boy’s cradle? How is the couple?
The farmer’s house Farmer’s wife The farmer She has killed the mongoose A snake fell dead near the cradle They are not happy. The boy is safe. The mongoose is dead.
How is the boy? What happened to the mongoose? Am I audible? Listening task: Narrating the 3rd slot of the story “ The Friendly Mongoose”
The story will be narrated.
Shall I increase/decrease my speed? How are my expressions?
Listen to the narration.
Listen attentively. Observe my facial expressions,
Where have I raised my voice?
3rd
slot of the story ‘ The Friendly Mongoose”
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action and movement.
Asking questions for interaction/assigning a task
Some questions will be asked.
What did the farmer’s wife bring from the shop? Mention some names of groceries?
Respond tomy questions.
What did she see outside her home? What is the mongoose doing?
You may give your rtersponses in a word, a phrase or in a sentence.
What did the mongoose do when he saw the farmer’s wife? What did the farmer’s wife notice on the mouth of the mongoose?
Groceries The mongoose Waiting for the farmer or his wife. Ran towards her to welcome home. Blood On the face and paws of the mongoose She screamed hysterically. The farmer’s wife killed the mongoose by beating hardly with a stick. She ran to her child’s cradle.
Where did she observe the blood stains? What did the farmer’s wife do? How is the mongoose killed? What did the farmer’s wife do after killing the mongoose? Do you support the mother? Why? Is the reading portion clear? Specifying the reading
Children, go through the third and fourth paragraphs of the story’
Do you require any help?
One day a jackal entered the forest…………They moved individually or with their own group.
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portion
Peace and Harmony’.
Is the portion specified clear? Don’t worry if you are not able to read and understand the whole text. Individual Reading
Try to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words. Please do not consult any one at this point.
Are you able to read? Do you require any help? Is the glossary sufficient? How many dialogues are there?
One day a jackal entered the forest…………They moved individually or with their own group.
What is the first dialogue? Who uttered the first dialogue?
Checking comprehension
Children, I will ask you a few questions. Respond to my questions. You may give your response in a word/ a phrase/a sentence.
Who entered the forest?
A jackal
How was he?
Dirty.
What did the jackal tell the elephants?
Why do you play with tiny animals?
How did he poison the minds of the peaco*cks? Why did the jackal approach the deer?
Being the loveliest, why do you praise the mynahs? To poison her mind. All the animals started suspecting one another.
What change has occurred gradually? They started building fencing around
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Collaborative reading
What are the animals started doing?
their properties and moving either individually or with their own group.
Children sit in groups. Share the ideas. Share only one idea at a time. Continue sharing till you complete all the ideas.
How many ideas have you shared?
One day a jackal entered the forest…………They moved individually or with their own group.
Children, Some questions will be asked.
Are the questions clear?
What is the first idea that you have shared?
Do you like the jackal? Mention some activities of the jackal to say that it is cunning?
Think and respond to my questions. Scaffold reading
Do you support the animals in separating themselves?
Individual Task
Children, here is a task. Do it. Do it individually.
Is the task clear?
Fill the blanks in the sentences given below with the word opposite in meaning to the one in bold letters 1. The elephant’s eyes are small but its body is ———————————— 2. The animals were happy in the beginning. After the jackal entered the
246
forest, they became ———————— 3. The giraffe’s neck is very long but its tail is ————————— 4. Mangoes are sweet but lemons are —————————————— 5. The coconut is a tall tree but the guava is a ——————— tree.
tify the wrongly spelt word Task for assessment
A task is given. Do it.
How many sentences are given? Is the task clear?
write the correct spelling
of the word in the space provided poison, proud, busy, roam _________ praise, chance, peace, apear ________
Am I audible? Loud reading by the teacher
Children, now I’ll read the text aloud. Listen to me.
Where have I paused?
One day a jackal entered the forest…………They moved individually or with their own group.
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Observe where I’ve paused. Observe the tone, pitch and voice. Loud reading by the children
Now you are going to read aloud in your groups Each one of you can take turn and read aloud your part.
How many times have you paused?
One day a jackal entered the forest…………They moved individually or with their own group.
Where have you raised your voice?
Teacher’s reflection: Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy Group products
248
PERIOD PLAN-4 Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
Peace and Harmony- Paragraphs 5 & 6
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process:
Reading
No. Present:
Objectives: To make them read individually and share their reading experience in groups. To make them use glossary to guess the meanings of the words in the text. To help them share their ideas freely. To respond to variety of questions for comprehending the text. To extrapolate the text. To make them develop vocabulary through concept mapping. To get the articulation features like pitch, voice, tone etc through the loud reading of the teacher To make them read aloud with proper tone variation, voice modulation. To make sense of the reading passage through collaboration. To reflect on the passage they have read. To analyze the information given and link it with their personal experience. To generate their own texts from the given text. Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Teaching Learning material: Picture chart of the picture on page no. 2 of class VI English textbook. Glossary chart Work sheets/task sheets
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Expected children’s responses /
Questions for interaction Process Step
Instructions The story will be narrated.
Listening task: Narrating the 4th slot of the story “ The Friendly Mongoose”
Listen to the narration. Listen attentively. Observe my facial expressions, action and movement. Some questions will be asked.
Asking questions for interaction
Am I audible? Shall I increase/decrease my speed?
Respond to my questions.
Answer the following questions
4th
slot of the story ‘ The Friendly Mongoose”
How are my expressions? Where have I raised my voice?
Where is the baby? What is the baby doing?
You may give your responses in a word, a phrase or in a sentence.
Task
board work
What is there on the floor? ‘In a flash she realized what had happened’What did she realize? Why is the woman sobbing? How many questions are asked?
In the cradle Sleeping A black snake torn and bleeding. She realized that the mongoose has not killed her baby and killed the snake. She has hastily killed the mongoose without knowing what had happened.
1. Which character do you like the most in the story and why? 2. Do you think the mongoose would have bitten the child? 3. Is the woman right in killing the mongoose? What would you have
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done? 4. Why did the husband go to fields leaving the child to the mongoose? 5. Why do you think the mongoose killed the snake? 6. Suggest one word that describes the character of the mongoose in the story? 7. Is it a good idea to have a mongoose as a pet? Give reasons. Is the picture clear? Displaying the picture on page no 2 of class VI English text book and interaction based on the picture
Look at the picture. Observe carefully. Some questions are asked. Respond to the questions.
Is it visible?
The god moon and some animals. The moon
Who are there in the picture? Who is saying something? How is the moon look like? What are the animals doing? Do you know what are they talking about? Do you know what the animals are saying? Do you know what the moon is saying?
Like a saint. They are listening to the moon.
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Observe the picture carefully.
Linking the ideas with the reading text and specifying the reading portion.
Respond to my questions. Think, discuss and tell me.
You can respond in mother tongue also.
Do you know who are they?
Do you know what are they talking about?
Now it was easy for the jackal to hunt the smaller animals and the birds…………And the Sadhu listened to them.
Do you want to know who are they and what are they talking about?
Children, go through the fifth and sixth paragraphs of the story’ Peace and Harmony’.
Don’t worry if you are not able to read and understand the whole text. Individual reading by the children Display of glossary
Try to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words. Please do not consult any one at this point. Consult the glossary chart if necessary.
How many sentences are there? What characters are there? How many dialogues are there? Is the glossary sufficient? Shall I increase the glossary?
10 sentences
The moon , animals and the birds No dialogues
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Children, I will ask you a few questions. Checking comprehension
Hunting smaller animals and birds What was easy for the jackal?
Respond to my questions.
Nobody helped them
Who helped the smaller ones You may give your response when they cried out for help? in a word/ a phrase/a sentence.
The jackal
Who was the hunter?
Because the animals and the birds are afraid.
Why was the forest slept?
Collaborative reading by the children
Children sit in groups. Share the ideas. Share only one idea at a time. Continue sharing till you complete all the ideas.
What sentence shows that the number of smaller animals and birds is decreased? Why was the moon sad?
One by one the little ones are disappeared.
No musical evenings.
Why the moon was came down to earth as a Sadhu? To give suggestions to the animals and the birds.
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Scaffold reading
Children, Some questions will be asked.
How do you feel if you are the king of the forest?
Think and respond to my questions.
Have you ever seen a Sadhu? Have you ever listened to a sermon? What will the animals do now? What do you do if you have any problem?
Loud reading by the teacher
Children, now I’ll read the text aloud.
How many times have I paused?
Listen to me. Observe where I’ve paused. Observe the tone, pitch and voice. Loud reading by the children
Now you are going to read aloud in your groups Each one of you can take turn and read aloud your part.
Now it was easy for the jackal to hunt the smaller animals and the birds…………And the Sadhu listened to them.
Where have I raised my voice?
Which group wants to read aloud for the whole class?
Now it was easy for the jackal to hunt the smaller animals and the birds…………And the Sadhu listened to them.
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Task for assessment
Here is a task.
Is the task clear?
Choose the words with
Do it .
What is to be done?
similar meanings (synonyms) from the list given to the words underlined. tiny,
simple,
creatures, kill
) Now it was easy for the jackal to hunt the smaller animals and the birds.
Teacher’s reflections: Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy Group products
Note: To check comprehension, fill in the blanks or multiple choice questions can also be planned. More number of tasks may be planned.
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PERIOD PLAN-5
Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
Peace and Harmony- Paragraphs 7 & 8
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process:
Reading
No. Present:
Objectives: To make them read individually and share their reading experience in groups. To make them use glossary to guess the meanings of the words in the text. To help them share their ideas freely. To respond to variety of questions for comprehending the text. To extrapolate the text. To make them develop vocabulary through concept mapping. To get the articulation features like pitch, voice, tone etc through the loud reading of the teacher. To make them read aloud with proper tone variation, voice modulation. To make sense of the reading passage through collaboration. To reflect on the passage they have read. To analyze the information given and link it with their personal experience. To generate their own texts from the given text. Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Teaching Learning material: Glossary chart. Work sheets/task sheets/activity sheets.
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Process Step
Narrating the story happened so far
Instructions
I will tell you the story “ Peace and Harmony’ Listen to me.
Questions for interaction
Am I audible?
Have you recollected what had happened?
Children, go through the seventh and eighth paragraphs of the story ‘ Peace and Harmony’
Is the text clear?
Individual reading
Don’t worry if you are not able to read and understand the whole text.
How many sentences are there?
Try to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words. Please do not consult any one at this point.
----------
Is the story clear?
Specifying the reading portion
And display of glossary
Expected children’s responses.
Do you know where to start?
What is the first sentence?
Is the glossary sufficient?
The Sadhu brought together…….for an opportunity to attack the Sadhu.
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What did the Sadhu bring? Checking Comprehension
Children, I will ask you a few Why did the Sadhu arrange common meal? questions. Who are involved in a long chat? Respond to my questions. You may give your response What might be the chat about? in a word/ a phrase/a sentence. What did the Sadhu’s advice to the eagle?
Who played with the Sadhu?
Lions and the rabbits for a common meal. He has arranged common meal to discuss something. The Sadhu, the python and the vipor. To get rid of the jackal. Not to attack the chicks whose mothers are daed. The tiger and the wilf bear. The bulbul, the owl and the monkeys.
Groups, did you compete sharing ideas you understood
He became a hurdle to attack the animals.
Why was the jackal angry with the Sadhu?
He did not want the animals to live with peace and harmony.
Who went to the market with the Sadhu?
Children sit in groups. Share the ideas. Share only one idea at a time. Continue sharing till you complete all the ideas. Collaborative reading by the children
Scaffold reading
The Sadhu brought the
What did not the jackal want? What was the jackal waiting for?
The jackal is waiting for a chance to attack the Sadhu.
Why was the jackal want to attack the Sadhu?
He wanted to get rid of the Sadhu.
Children, Some questions will be asked.
Do you think peace and harmony is necessary ?
The Sadhu brought together…….for an opportunity to attack the Sadhu.
Think and respond to my questions.
What do you to get peace and harmony in your school?
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Task
Here is a task for you.
Is the task clear?
( peaco*ck, jackal, monkeys, cuckoos, elephants, , parrots, mynahs, tiger )
Do it.
Loud reading by the teacher
Children, now I’ll read the text aloud. Listen to me.
Arrange the following words under correct headings.
How many times have I paused?
BIRDS 1. ……
ANIMALS 1. ………
2.
…………
2. …………
3.
…………
3.
…………
4.
………………
4.
…………
The Sadhu brought together…….for an opportunity to attack the Sadhu.
Where have I raised my voice?
Observe where I’ve paused. Observe the tone, pitch and voice.
Loud reading by the
Now you are going to read
Which group wants to read aloud for the whole The Sadhu brought together…….for
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children
aloud in your groups
class?
an opportunity to attack the Sadhu.
Here is a task.
How many words are given?
Choose the correct answer:
Do it .
What is to be done?
1) Why was jackal angry?
Each one of you can take turn and read aloud your part.
Task for assessment 1
(
)
(a) Sadhu came to forest (b) Sadhu was trying to restore peace (c) Sadhu was trying to eat jackal 2) What was sadhu doing?
(
)
(a) Sadhu wanted all animals to be united (b) Sadhu accompanied jackal (c) Sadhu wanted to teach all animals 3) “He did not want the animals to live in peace and harmony” who does ‘he’ refer to? (a) jackal
(b) Sadhu
(c) Rabbit
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4) The jackal was waiting for an opportunity. What was that opportunity? ( ) (a) to kill Sadhu (b) to make friendship (c) to teach a lesson 5) What is the meaning of ‘peace and harmony’? (a) living badly (b) living sadly (c) living peacefully
Task for assessment 2
Here is a task.
Have you gone through the task?
Do it .
What is to be done?
Read the following sentences and write the opposite words for the underlined words 1) You can see stars in the sky during night time and you cannot see stars during _______ time. 2) Yesterday’s climate was very hot as it drizzled in the morning. It is ______ today. 3) Close your Mathematics books. It is English class now. All of you ______ English text books. 4) All animals were happy When jackal entered the forest, they became _______
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Teacher’s reflections
Process step
Teacher’s reflections
Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy Group products
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PERIOD PLAN -6
Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
Peace and Harmony -Paragraphs- 9 & 10
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process:
Reading
No. Present:
Objectives: To make them read individually and share their reading experience in groups. To make them use glossary to guess the meanings of the words in the text. To help them share their ideas freely. To respond to variety of questions for comprehending the text. To extrapolate the text. To make them develop vocabulary through concept mapping. To get the articulation features like pitch, voice, tone etc through the loud reading of the teacher. To make them read aloud with proper tone variation, voice modulation. To make sense of the reading passage through collaboration. To reflect on the passage they have read. To analyze the information given and link it with their personal experience. To generate their own texts from the given text. Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Teaching Learning material Chart with glossary Work sheets/task sheets/activity sheets.
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Process Step
Questions for interaction
Expected children’s responses.
Instructions
Narrating the story happened so far
I will tell you the story “ Peace and Harmony’ Listen to me.
Specifying the reading portion
Individual reading And display of glossary
Am I audible? Is the story clear? Have you recollected what had happened?
Children, go through the ninth and tenth paragraphs of the story ‘ Peace and Harmony’
Is the text clear?
Don’t worry if you are not able to read and understand the whole text.
How many sentences are there?
Try to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words. Please do not consult any one at this point.
----------
Do you know where to start?
What is the first sentence?
Is the glossary sufficient?
One day the animals, insects, and birds…….”take me today for your meal”
One day the animals, insects, and birds…….”take me today for your meal”
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Checking comprehension.
Children, I will ask you a few questions. Respond to my questions. You may give your response in a word/ a phrase/a sentence.
Is the task clear?
Fill the following blanks with suitable words. The ___,___ and the______ held an emergency meeting. They held an emergency meeting to decide____________. They have pleaded the Sadhu to _______________. The Sadhu promised to help them in a ________. The jackal came to the house of _________after sunset. She came to __________. The Sadhu told the jackal to __________.
Collaborative Reading
Children sit in groups. Share the ideas. Share only one idea at a time. Continue sharing till you complete all the ideas.
Why did the animals and birds hold an emergency meeting? How will the animals feel if the jackal is dead? Will the Sadhu help the animals and the birds?
To approach the Sadhu They will be happy. Sure. No.
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Will the Sadhu kill the jackal?
Scaffold Reading
Children, Some questions will be asked. Think and respond to my questions.
Have you ever attended any meeting?
One day the animals, insects, and birds…….”take me today for your meal”
Why are meetings conducted?
What will be the alternative solution?
Loud reading by the teacher
Children, now I’ll read the text aloud. Listen to me. Observe where I’ve paused.
Loud reading by the children
How many times have I paused?
Where have I raised my voice?
Observe the tone, pitch and voice.
Do you find any difference in reading a statement and uttering a dialogue?
Now you are going to read aloud in your groups
Which group wants to read aloud for the whole class?
Each one of you can take turn and read aloud your part.
One day the animals, insects, and birds…….”take me today for your meal”
One day the animals, insects, and birds…….”take me today for your meal”
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Task for assessment
Here is a task. Do it .
Is the task clear?
Choose the correct answer and your option in the brackets.
1) My grandmother ____ goes to the temple. Because she does not believe god ( ) (a) some times (b) never (c) always 2) I ____ get up at 5 in the morning so as not to be late to the tuition ( ) (a) always (b) seldom (c) never 3) Kiran is a busy person. He __finds time to read books ( ) (a)some times (c) always
(b) never
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Home task
Note down the tsk in your note book. Do it in your home.
Is the task clear?
1) Who came to the house of hens? 2) Why did the jackal come to the hen’s house? 3) When did the jackal come to hen’s house? ( ) a) Morning b) after noon c) Night 4) Why was the Sadhu lodging near by the hens house ( ) a) To talk with hen b) to talk with jackal c) To sleep ( ) 5) Which of the following statement is correct (
)
a) Jackal came to the hens house to greet them b) Jackal came to the hens house to eat them as supper c) Jackal came to the hens house to kill the sadhu
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Teacher’s Reflections: Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy Group products
Note: To check comprehension, fill in the blanks or multiple choice questions can also be planned. More number of tasks may be planned
269
PERIOD PLAN -7
Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
Peace and Harmony -Paragraph- 11
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process:
Reading
No. Present:
Objectives: To make them read individually and share their reading experience in groups. To make them use glossary to guess the meanings of the words in the text. To help them share their ideas freely. To respond to variety of questions for comprehending the text. To extrapolate the text. To make them develop vocabulary through concept mapping. To get the articulation features like pitch, voice, tone etc through the loud reading of the teacher. To make them read aloud with proper tone variation, voice modulation. To make sense of the reading passage through collaboration. To reflect on the passage they have read. To analyze the information given and link it with their personal experience. To generate their own texts from the given text. Academic Standards targeted: *Listening and Responding. * Vocabulary. *Reading Comprehension. Teaching Learning material: Work sheets/task sheets/activity sheets. Chart containing teacher’s version.
*Creative Expression.
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Process Step
Questions for interaction
Expected children’s responses.
Instructions
Narrating the story happened so far
I will tell you the story “ Peace and Harmony’ Listen to me.
Am I audible? Is the story clear? Have you recollected what had happened?
Specifying the reading portion
Children, go through the eleventh paragraph of the story ‘ Peace and Harmony’
Is the text clear?
Individual reading
Don’t worry if you are not able to read and understand the whole text.
How many sentences are there?
And display of glossary
Try to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words.
Do you know where to start?
What is the first sentence?
The jackal who had been waiting for the opportunity………Remember and be not afraid.
The jackal who had been waiting for the opportunity………Remember and be not afraid.
Is the glossary sufficient?
Please do not consult any one at this point. Checking comprehension.
Children, I will ask you a few questions.
What did the jackal do?
Dragged the Sadhu into the forest. She tore him into pieces and ate him up. They felt very sad about the Sadhu.
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Respond to my questions. You may give your response in a word/ a phrase/a sentence.
What did the jackal eat the Sadhu? How did the animals feel? What did they fear about? What did they hear? “It continued to bloat” what does the word’it’ refer to? “Then they heard a soft voice” whose voice is it?
Collaborative reading by the children
Children sit in groups. Share the ideas. Share only one idea at a time. Continue sharing till you complete all the ideas.
Groups, did you complete sharing ideas? What sentence shows that the jackal is dead? What is the jackal waiting for? “May my animals, birds and insects live in peace and harmony” Whose dialogue is this? What are the advantages of living in peace and harmony/
The jackal would appear again. They heard a strange sound. The stomach of the jackal. The Sadhu’s.
272
Scaffold reading
How do you want to live with others? Children, Some questions will be asked.
Do you support the Sadhu for what he has done?
Think and respond to my questions.
How, do you think, the stomach of the jackal is growing bigger and bigger? How will be the jungle now?
Loud reading by the teacher
Children, now I’ll read the text aloud.
How many times have I paused? Where have I raised my voice?
Listen to me.
The jackal who had been waiting for the opportunity………Remember and be not afraid.
Observe where I’ve paused. Observe the tone, pitch and voice.
Loud reading by the children
Now you are going to read aloud in your groups
Which group wants to read aloud for the whole class?
Each one of you can take turn and read aloud your part.
Assessment task
Here is a task. Do it.
Is the task clear?
The jackal who had been waiting for the opportunity………Remember and be not afraid.
Match the sentences in Part-A with the sentences in Part-B. Part-A …
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How many sentences are given?
a) The animals in the forest were friendly ( ) b) The animals started suspecting one another ( ) c) All the animals requested him ( ) d) The Sadhu didn’t want to kill the jackal ( ) Part-B… 1) so he thought to teach a lesson to it. 2) so the jackal could not eat any animal. 3) so they started living individually. 4) so the Sadhu solved their problem.
Assigning a creative expressive task
Here is an invitation card.
Is the task clear?
Task given under ‘writing’ of page 8.
Go through the invitation card and prepare an invitation card for your school anniversary.
Do you require any help?
Go through the invitation card and prepare an invitation card for your school anniversary. Use the following clues. Venue: School main hall Date: 21.04.2017
274
Time: 5 P.M. onwards Chief Guest: The Panchayat President. Programme: Cultural show by the students.
Interaction to elicit the task
Ask me if you require any help.
What is to be prepared?
An invitation card
Go through the task.
What information is provided?
Observe carefully.
Who is the chief guest?
About the programme, venue, date time, etc… The panchayat president.
Individual presentation (random)
Present your versions. Present individually.
Who will present first?
Individual presentation
Refinement in groups
Children, sit in groups.
Which group will present first?
Group products
Refine your products.
Groups, what changes have you made through discussions?
Share your ideas among yourselves.
Presentation of the
Children, here I present my version
Teacher’s version written on a chart of
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teacher’s version
of the task.
Is my version clear?
the given task.
Do you require help?
Teacher’s version written on a chart of the given task.
Go through it. Read slowly. Ask me if you require any help. Noting down of the teacher’s version.
Children, note down from my version.
Who will read from my version?
Teacher’s reflections:
Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy
Group products
Note: To check comprehension, fill in the blanks or multiple choice questions can also be planned. More number of tasks may be planned.
276
PERIOD PLAN-8
Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
Peace and Harmony-Paragraphs 12
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process:
Reading
No. Present:
Objectives: To make them read individually and share their reading experience in groups. To make them use glossary to guess the meanings of the words in the text. To help them share their ideas freely. To respond to variety of questions for comprehending the text. To extrapolate the text. To make them develop vocabulary through concept mapping. To get the articulation features like pitch, voice, tone etc through the loud reading of the tea To make them read aloud with proper tone variation, voice modulation. To make sense of the reading passage through collaboration. To reflect on the passage they have read. To analyze the information given and link it with their personal experience. To generate their own texts from the given text. Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Creative Expression Teaching Learning material: Glossary chart. Work sheets/task sheets/activity sheets. Chart containing teacher’s version.
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Process Step
Questions for interaction
Expected children’s responses.
Instructions
Narrating the story happened so far
Specifying the reading portion
Individual reading And display of glossary
I will tell you the story “ Peace and Harmony’ Listen to me.
Children, go through the twelfth paragraph of the story ‘ Peace and Harmony’ Don’t worry if you are not able to read and understand the whole text. Try to guess the meaning of the unfamiliar words.
Am I audible?
Narrating the story happened so far
Is the story clear? Have you recollected what had happened?
Is the text clear? Do you know where to start?
How many sentences are there? What is the first sentence?
Please do not consult any one at this point. Is the glossary sufficient?
When they looked up at the sky… ……………….. the moon and the stars for the cultural evenings.
When they looked up at the sky… ……………….. the moon and the stars for the cultural evenings.
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Checking Comprehension
Children, I will ask you a few questions. Respond to my questions. You may give your response in a word/ a phrase/a sentence.
How is the moon shining?
Brilliantly
What did the animals started again?
Roaming about the forest freely.
Why did they break down their fences?
Their fear has gone. The moon and the stars.
Whom did they invite for their cultural evenings?
Scaffold reading
Children, Some questions will be asked. Think and respond to my questions.
How is the ending of the story? Do you like the story? Which character do you like most? Why?
When they looked up at the sky… ……………….. the moon and the stars for the cultural evenings.
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Vocabulary task
Here is a task. Go through it.
Do you know how did they reach the bird sanctuary?
Do it accordingly. Do you want to know…..?
Choose the words with similar meanings (synonyms) from the list given to the words underlined. (sorrow, advanced, determined, stories, visible) The moon thought for a while and decided to come down among the animals and the birds as sadhu. |As soon as the sadhu appeared in the forest, the animals and the birds approached him to narrate their tales of woe.
Loud reading by the teacher
Children, now I’ll read the text aloud. Listen to me. Observe where I’ve paused. Observe the tone, pitch and voice.
Loud reading by the children
Now you are going to read aloud in your groups. Each one of you can take turn and read aloud your part.
How many times have I paused? Where have I raised my voice?
When they looked up at the sky… ……………….. the moon and the stars for the cultural evenings.
Do you find any difference in reading a statement and uttering a dialogue?
Which group wants to read aloud for the whole class?
When they looked up at the sky… ……………….. the moon and the stars for the cultural evenings.
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Task for assessment
Here is a task.
Is the task clear?
Go through it.
How many sentences are given?
Do it accordingly.
Rearrange the following sentences in the order of their occurrence in the story 1. The animals and the birds requested the moon to help them. 2. The moon came in the form of a sadhu. 3. The jackal created an unfriendly atmosphere. 4. The peace and harmony in the forest was disturbed. 5. The jackal entered the forest. 6. The peace and harmony in the forest was restored. 7. The jackal did not like this, so it killed the sadhu. 8. The sadhu talked to everyone in the forest and tried to restore peace. 9. They often held musical evenings. 10. The animals and the birds began suspecting each other. 11. The animals and the birds were living happily together. 12. The stomach of the jackal bloated and then burst.
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Task on study skills
Here is a task.
Is the task clear?
Study the following table. It shows the number of animals attended for the emergency meeting with the Sadhu.
Go through it.
Do you require any help?
Kinds of animals
Do it accordingly.
Number of animals
Elephants
04
Peaco*cks
15
Python
07
Tigers
03
Ants
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Hens
20
Now answer the questions 1. How many hens had attended for the meeting? 2. Which animals were more in attending for the meeting? 3. What kind of birds had attended for the meeting? 4. What were the biggest animals attended for the meeting? 5. Which animals was less in number to attend the meeting?
282
Teacher’s reflections: Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy Group products
Note: To check comprehension, fill in the blanks or multiple choice questions can also be planned. More number of tasks may be planned.
283
PERIOD PLAN-9
Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
I Want Peace
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process/item:
Poem
No. Present:
Objectives: To encourage the learners who are reluctant to speak. To encourage them think creatively. To help them share their ideas freely. To encourage them to come out with their perception of the picture. To make them listen to simple instructions and responds accordingly. To help them identify the names of familiar objects in English. To help them read the picture and associate them with the words. To encourage learners to say words related to the theme. To improve their vocabulary through the concept map of the concept ’nature’ Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Creative Expression. Teaching Learning material: Picture chart of the picture given on page no 12 of class VI text book. Glossary chart. Work sheets/task sheets/activity sheets.
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Process Step
Questions for interaction
Expected children’s responses.
Instructions
Displaying the Picture chart of the second picture given on page.no.12
Eliciting Key/relevant vocabulary and ideas from the picture.
Presentation of the poem.
Look at the picture. Observe carefully.
Look at the picture. Observe it carefully. Respond to the questions. Think, discuss and give your response. Observe what is written.
Is the picture clear?
----------
Is the picture visible?
What place is it?
It is a model of the earth. Many people are seen.
What persons/things/ Objects do you see in the picture?
Observe the spellings.
What actions do you observe in the picture?
Here is the poem ‘I Want Peace’.
What is the title of the poem?
I Want Peace
Go through it.
How many stanzas are there?
3 stanzas.
Observe the poem.
How many lines are there in each stanza?
First and second stanzas contain 5 lines each, whereas the third stanza has 7 lines.
How is each line started
With the letter ‘I’
Some questions will be asked. Respond to the questions.
285
Individual reading of the poem followed by checking comprehension
Read the poem individually. A task is given’ Do the task.
Fill the blanks with appropriate words.
Choose the appropriate one from the words given in brackets to complete the following sentences. (i) I wonder there will be ………………………( piece, peace ) (ii) I …………………… ( here, hear ) the sound of people who are being killed. (iii)I …………….. ( sea, see ) the people crying for life. (iv)I want to help the ………………… ( pure, poor ) people.
(v) I touch the feelings of the ………………… ( pupil, people ) vi) I feel the …………………. …….. (wait, weight ) of sorrow on me. (vii) I ……………. ( hope, hop ) I won’t be destroyed. (viii) I wonder if ………………… (their, there ) will be peace.
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Task on pronunciation
A task is given’
Is the task clear/
Do the task.
Read the set of words . If the words are pronounced same write ‘S’ in bracket. If the words are pronounced different write ‘D’ (i) round
---- ground
(
___ people
(
)
(iii) poor ____ poOr
(
)
(iv) round ____ ground
(
)
(v) god _____ dog
(
(ii) people
Concept mapping
Here is a concept.
Let’s recite/sing the poem. First, let’s recite individually. Ask me if you require any help.
)
How many words are elicited?
Concept map of the concept’ peace”
Who requires help?
The poem ‘ I Want Peace’
Develop a map for the given concept.
Singing of the poem- individual
)
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Singing of the poem- group
Now, let’s sing the poem in groups.
Word building
Here is a task for word building
Ask me if you require any help.
Which group wants to sing first for the whole class?
The poem ‘ I Want Peace’
Do you require any help?
Produce as many words as you can from the letters of the given word.
Go through it.
Understand: _____________________ Destroyed: ____________________
Home task
Here is a task for you. Do it.
Is the task clear?
Go through the first stanza and answer the following questions: (i) Who is the speaker? (ii) What sound does ‘it’ here? (iii) What is the tone of the speaker? (happy/sorrowful) (iv) what is the antonym of the word ‘peace’? (v) Who does the speaker want to help
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Student teacher’s reflections: Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy Group products
Note: To check comprehension, fill in the blanks or multiple choice questions can also be planned. More number of tasks may be planned.
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PERIOD PLAN-10
Name of the Student Teacher:
Roll. No:
School:
Class: VI
Subject: English
Date:
Unit No/Title:
I Want Peace
No. on Roll:
Transaction Process/ item:
Poem
No. Present:
Objectives: To encourage the learners who are reluctant to speak. To encourage them think creatively. To help them share their ideas freely. To encourage them to come out with their perception of the picture. To make them listen to simple instructions and responds accordingly. To help them identify the names of familiar objects in English. To help them read the picture and associate them with the words. To encourage learners to say words related to the theme. To improve their vocabulary through the concept map of the concept ’nature’ Academic Standards targeted: Listening and Responding. Vocabulary. Reading Comprehension. Creative Expression. Teaching Learning material: Picture chart of the picture given on page no 12 of class VI text book. Glossary chart. Work sheets/task sheets/activity sheets.
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Process Step
Questions for interaction
Expected children’s responses.
Instructions
Singing of the poemindividual
Let’s recite/sing the poem.
Who requires help?
The poem ‘ I Want Peace’
Which group wants to sing first for the whole class?
The poem ‘ I Want Peace’
First, let’s recite individually. Ask me if you require any help.
Singing of the poem- group
Now, let’s sing the poem in groups. Ask me if you require any help.
Read the second stanza and answer the following. Comprehension Task
Children, read the poem ‘I Want Peace’. Some tasks for comprehension will be given. Do them as per the instructions given.
Is the task clear? (i) Who is the speaker of the stanza? (ii) What is the speaker’s dream. (iii) ‘I hope I won’t be destroyed’ it means. ( ) (a) the speaker is expecting that he should be protected (b) The speaker is expecting to
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be destroyed WRITE TRUE OR FALSE (iv) the speaker is very large and the shape of circle ( ) (v) The speaker does not wish all the people to be happy ( ) Task - vocabulary
Here is a vocabulary task. Do it.
Is the task clear?
Choose the same pronouncing word of the underlined word given in the sentence (i) I cry for help (a) free cue
(
)
(b) dry (c) decree (d)
(ii) I am big and round (
)
( a) grind (b) friend (c) found (d) grand (iii) I see the people
(
(a) ripple (b) needle feeble (d) pupil
)
(c)
(iv) They are crying for life ( ) (a) leaf (d) five
(b) brief
(c) wife
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Vocabulary task
Here is another vocabulary task. Do it.
Put the following in alphabetical order. (i) people destroyed
handle future
A. ………………………… ………………………… ………………………… ………………………… …………………………
(ii)
round
wonder
problems
peace
A ………………………… ………………………… ………………………… ………………………… ………………………… ………………………… ……………………….
(iii) dream
sound
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killed
sorrow
A. ………………………… ………………………… ………………………… ………………………… …………………………
Home task
Here is a task.
Is the task clear?
Do it at your home.
Imagine that you are the Earth and write a DESCRIPTION about the steps to be taken by you to solve the problems of the people on you.
Teacher’s reflections: Student’s work
Student’s individual products
Children’s performances recorded In the dairy
Group products
Note: To check comprehension, fill in the blanks or multiple choice questions can also be planned. More number of tasks may be planned.
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APPENDIX – 3 MODEL QUESTION PAPERS (CCE PATTERN)
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APPENDIX –3 MODEL FORMATIVE & SUMMATIVE TEST PAPERS FOR ELEMENTARY CLASSES
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT– SLIP TEST Name of the Student:……………….
Time: 1Hr
Roll No:………………..
Marks: 20
Answer all the questions in the question paper itself. Task 1:
5 Marks
Choose the words with similar meanings (synonyms) from the list given to the words underlined. (sorrow, advanced, determined, stories, visible) The moon thought for a while and decided to come down among the animals and the birds as Sadhu.
As soon as the Sadhu appeared in the forest, the animals and the birds
approached him to narrate their tales of woe. 1.________
2._________
3.__________
4._________
5.________
Task 2: Read the following passage carefully
5 Marks
But the jackal was very angry with what the Sadhu was doing. He did not want the animals to live in peace and harmony. So he was waiting for an opportunity to attack the Sadhu. Choose the correct answer: 1) Why was jackal angry?
(
)
(c) Sadhu came to forest (b) Sadhu was trying to restore peace (c) Sadhu was trying to eat jackal 2) What was sadhu doing? (a) Sadhu wanted all animals to be united (b) Sadhu accompanied jackal (c) Sadhu wanted to teach all animals
(
)
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3) “He did not want the animals to live in peace and harmony” who does ‘he’ refer to? ( ) (a) jackal
(b) sadhu
(c) Rabbit
4) The jackal was waiting for an opportunity. What was that opportunity? (a) to kill sadhu (b) to make friendship 5)
)
(
)
(c) to teach a lesson
What is the meaning of ‘peace and harmony’? (a) living badly
(
(b) living sadly (c) living peacefully
Task 3:
3 Marks
Fill in the blanks with the right form of the words given in the brackets. 1) Chandu is ______________ than Chintu (tall/taller/tallest) 2) Vijay is as ________________ as Vineeth (clever/cleverer/cleverest) 3) Chota bheem is the ________________ boy in the class (strong/stronger/strongest) Task4 : Rewrite the following using correct punctuation marks.
2 Marks
The sadhu who had been lodging nearby, came out of the house and spoke to the jackal “take me today for your meal ___________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ Task5:
5 Marks
In the lesson “PEACE AND HARMONY” you have learnt how SADHU has taught a lesson to jackal and saved the animals very tactfully. All the animals showed their gratitude towards Sadhu for saving them from jackal. Now, imagine that you are the leader of the all animals and you decided to conduct a thanks giving meeting. Prepare an “INVITATION” inviting all the animals and guests on this occasion.
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SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT MODEL PAPER – CLASS- VI
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT English Name of the Student:……………….
Time: 2.30Hrs
Roll No:………………..
Marks: 50
Answer all the questions in the question paper itself.
Academic Standards
Listening and Speaking (Oral)
Reading Comprehension
Vocabulary
Grammatica l awareness
Creative Expression
Total
Task No & Marks alotted
Classroom based assessment (10 Marks)
1,2,3 (15 Marks)
4,5,6 (7 Marks)
7,8,9 (8Marks)
10 (10 Marks)
(50 Marks)
Marks obtained Grade
Listening and speaking. (10 marks) Teachers are requested to narrateany part of the story’ The Friendly Mangoose/present any speech/ once or twice and ask some questions individually and assess their listening part in the English reader or from outside materials like story books, dailies, Chandamama etc. (The time slot for this task is not included in the present summative assessment time. Teachers are requested to conduct the oral test after the exam at their convenient time.)
Reading comprehension: ( 5 marks) Task - 1 Read the following passage But the jackal was very angry with what the sadhu was doing. He did not want the animals to live in peace and harmony. So he was waiting for an opportunity to attack the Sadhu.
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One day, the animals, insects and birds held an emergency meeting and they unanimously decided to approach the Sadhu and pleaded with him to kill the jackal. The Sadhu said, “I will not kill the jackal but will help you in a different way”. (Peace and Harmony) Now answer the following questions. a) Why was the jackal angry with the sadhu? b) What was the jackal waiting for? c) Who held an emergency meeting in the forest? d) What did they plead with the sadhu? e) Did the sadhu agree to kill the jackal? Task2: Read the following poem and answer the questions.
5M
I am big and round, I understand the problems of the people on me, I say grace for all people, I dream about my past, I try to handle my sorrow. I hope I won’t be destroyed, I am big and round. Questions: (i)
Who is the speaker of the stanza?
(ii)
What does the speaker dream?
(iii)
I hope I won’t be destroyed: means
(
)
a) speaker is expecting that he should be protected b) speaker is expecting to be destroyed. (iv)
The speaker does not wish all the people to be happy. (True/False)
(v)
I say_____________ for all people.
Task3: Read the following passage carefully. Once a dog was crossing a stream with a bone in his mouth. As he looked down into the stream. He saw his own reflection. He thought it was another dog with another bone in his mouth. He made up his mind to get that bone also. So, he barked at the dog he saw in the water.
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As he opened his mouth to get the second bone, his own bone fell into the stream and was lost. He, thus, lost all. Now answer the following questions: a) What was the dog crossing? b) What did he look in the stream? c) What did the dog do when he saw another dog in the stream? Choose the correct answer from the choices given below: d) He looked down into the stream, and he thought it was …….. A) his reflection
B) an another dog
B) a piece of bread
)
(
)
C) a lion
e) The dog was holding a ……………. in his mouth. A) bone
(
C) cake.
Vocabulary: Task4: Fill in the blanks with the word opposite in meaning to the one in bold letters. 4 M a) The elephant’s eyes are small but its body is ________. b) The animals were happy in the beginning. After the jackal entered the forest, they became _______. c) The giraffe’s neck is very long but its tail is ______. d) Mangoes are sweet but lemons are _________. Task 5 Choose the words with similar meanings from the list given to the words underlined. (tiny , simple, creatures, kill)
2M
Now it was easy for the jackal to hunt the smaller animals and the birds. Task 6 : Choose the suitable suffix. a) cultur _____ (el / al)
1M b) bright ---- (ness/ nes)
300
Grammar Task – 7 2 Marks Fill in the blanks in the following sentences choosing the correct expressions from those given in brackets. a) Ravi is ________ than Srinu
(short/ shorter/shortest)
b) Mahesh is as ______ as Radha
(clever/cleverer/cleverest)
c) Chotu is the ______ boy in the class.
(strong/stronger/strongest)
d) The jasmine is not so ________ the rose.
(beautiful /more beautiful/most beautiful)
Task-8: Choose the correct answer. 3 Marks i) My grandmother ______ goes to the temple, because she does not believe in god. ( ) a) sometimes b) never c) always. ii) I _________ get up at 5 in the morning. So as not to be late to the Tuition. ( ) a) always b) seldom c) never iii) Kiran is a busy person. He ______ finds time to read books. a) sometimes b) never c) always. Task9:
(
)
3M
Fill in the blanks with the right forms of the adjectives given in the brackets. 1) The poor old man once enjoyed a ______ life (happy) 2) Chaitanya has many _____ friends (old) 3) Please be ______ when you answer (honest) Creative Expression: Task 10:
10 M
In the lesson ‘Peace and Harmony’, you have read that the jackal disturbed peace in the jungle. It seperted all the animals and birds. It began hunting the animals one after one. The moon understood and felt sad. He came to the forest as a Sadhu to help the animals and birds. When the Sadhu appeared all the animals felt happy and told him of their problems. a) Write a possible conversation between the sadhu and the animals in the above context. (OR) b) Describe the feelings of the animals and birds in your own words.
